Against this pitifully weak fleet the British Admiral Cochrane sent a thousand men in fifty open boats. The Americans tried to escape, but there was no breeze to fill their sails, and as this was before the days of steamships, they could make no headway. The little fleet finally ran aground in a narrow channel.

Lieutenant Jones had only one hundred and fifty men, but this plucky little body of Americans was not going to be captured without a fight. Jones ordered the guns to be made ready, and steadfastly watched the advancing British as their boats, rowed by skilled oarsmen, swept over the sunlit lake. In the prow of each boat was a brightly burnished cannon, and back of it sat the redcoats — as the British were called, on account of their uniform — the points of their bayonets glittering like jewels in the sunlight.

The Americans waited until the British were well within range. Then a fierce blaze of fire flashed out over the lake. It killed many of the enemy, but did not break their perfect order. On they came, with steady, even stroke. Suddenly, with one swift, lengthened pull the barges bounded alongside the gunboats, and the British and Americans met in a fierce hand-to-hand fight. The British captured the gunboats, but it cost them three hundred men to do so, while the Americans lost but sixty.

The news of the naval battle on Lake Borgne reached New Orleans the next day. The governor at once sent a message to the legislature advising it to adjourn for fifteen or twenty days. Governor Claiborne thought that every man in New Orleans would be needed to defend the city. The legislature refused to adjourn. A committee stated to the governor that in time of war the legislature should remain in session to suggest ways to raise money to aid the people.

General Jackson did not like this act of the legislature. He did not want any suggestions. He had undertaken to save Louisiana, and was going to do it in his own way. He therefore declared the city to be under martial law. This meant that the laws made by the people were to be set aside, and that General Jackson, aided by his soldiers, was to rule according to his best judgment.

Jackson now set to work to guard all of the entrances into the city. Yet, in spite of his care, Bayou Bienvenu, leading from Lake Borgne to the Mississippi, was left open. The British were quick to take advantage of this opportunity. There were some Italian fishermen living on Bayou Bienvenu. These men sold their fish in New Orleans. The British paid them to take into the city two of their ofificers, disguised as fishermen.

Along Bayou Bienvenu and on Villere's canal, which led from the bayou to the city, were large plantations. One of these was the home of Major General Villere. When the major general heard that the British were on Lake Borgne, he sent several Creoles down the bayou to watch the movements of the enemy. The Creoles agreed that if they were captured, they would all say that Jackson had a large and powerful army to defend the city.

One night the little band was surprised and captured by five British barges which crept up the bayou and were upon them before the Creoles could escape. The British asked how many soldiers Jackson had at his command. The captives, to a man, replied that he had twelve thousand soldiers in NewOrleans and four thousand at the English Turn. The fishermen had told the British that Jackson had very few men, which was the truth, but the British believed the Creoles.

Questions. — i. Describe the American troops that fought at New Orleans.

2. What do you think of General Jackson?

3. Tell abeut the battle on Lake Borgne.

4. What is meant by putting a place under martial law?

CHAPTER XLV

THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS

The British pushed on up the bayou and landed back of General Villere's plantation. The general's son, Major Villere, saw the redcoats march quickly from behind an orange grove. He tried to escape through the back of the house, but the British surrounded the yard, and he was soon captured and put in a room under a guard.

The young major knew that General Jackson ought to learn at once that the enemy was coming. Somehow he must escape and reach New Orleans. With this one thought in mind, and without thinking of the danger to himself, Villere dashed past the guards, jumped through an open window, and made for the shelter of a thick wood. The soldiers followed, firing as they ran. He could hear the order given to surround the wood and capture him alive or dead.

Major Villere had just hidden himself in the branches of a large, moss-draped oak, when he heard his favorite hunting dog whining and scratching at the foot of the tree. He knew that she would betray him, so he came down quickly, and, with tears in his eyes, killed the faithful, affectionate animal, and hid her body in the bushes. Scarcely had he climbed again into the tree when the enemy came crashing through the wood. They looked all about, thrusting their bayonets into the brushwood, but they never once thought of looking up into the tree, where sat the major watching them. At last they gave up the search and went away.

Then Major Villere jumped to the ground and ran for the next plantation. There he got a swift horse that bore him to General Jackson.

General Jackson was a man who made up his mind quickly. He said, " We must fight them to-night." He summoned all the troops from their different stations, and ordered the gunboat Carolina down the river. The artillery had already been sent below to guard the city. At the gate of Fort St. Charles, Jackson reviewed the troops as they marched down the levee road. He waited until the last man passed; then he galloped after them.

That evening at nightfall the British soldiers were gathered about their campfires, singing and telling stories. Suddenly they heard a sentinel hail a boat that was gliding quietly down the dark river. There was no answer to the voice of the sentry. The soldiers, who had paused for a minute to gaze idly at the boat, again took up song and story. But neither was ever finished.

A clear, stern voice rang across the water, "Now, boys, give it to them for the honor of America!" At the same time there was a boom of cannon from off the river. It was answered ahnost instantly by a rattle of shot from a wood behind the camp. The British, who were running from the cannon balls to the shelter of the levee, were met by a squad of Americans who rushed out of the wood cheering each other on with shouts and cries. In the darkness all was confusion. The British officers could not get their commands, and fought with any squad that happened to be near. It was a fierce, hand-to-hand skirmish, lasting until half-past nine, when Jackson withdrew his men. There were more British left dead on the field than Americans.

Site of Battle-field of 1814, Chalmette National Cemetery

This battle occurred on the 23d of December, 1814, and was called the battle of the twenty-third. In it the Louisianians learned to trust their commander, and General Jackson learned that the Creoles were true men who could stand fire.

The British made the mistake of not at once pushing on six miles farther to New Orleans. If they had done so, they could have taken the city before General Jackson could march his forces back to protect it.

On Christmas Day, one of England's greatest generals. Sir Edward Pakenham, took command of the British troops. The first thing Sir Edward did was to destroy the Carolina and drive away the Louisiana. He did not want his men again to be placed between two fires.

Between the 23d of December and the 8th of January, both sides did some cannonading, but no battle was fought. The Americans worried the British like wasps. Day and night they threw shells into the enemy's camp, so that the British could neither rest nor sleep. They could not even keep a sentinel, for the American hunters picked each new one off with the same sure aim that had brought death to many a rabbit and squirrel in the woods of Tennessee.

Twenty-two hundred Kentuckians came to New Orleans to help Jackson. They were in rags, and were armed with rusty old guns that would not shoot. But Jackson was glad to see the brave men, and the houses were again ransacked to find them better weapons. The ladies of the city made them warm clothes. In one week they made twelve hundred coats, eleven hundred pairs of trousers, and eight hundred shirts.

During this time General Jackson built strong breastworks. They were a- mile long, and were made of logs plastered together with mud.

On the night of the 7th of January, 1815, the Americans heard stirrings in the British camp, and at daylight the next morning, the British sent up a rocket. This was their way of saying that they were ready to fight. The Americans answered with a cannon shot, which said that they too were ready. Then the splendidly drilled British troops, led by General Gibbs, advanced toward the Americans. The orderlv British soldiers were a strange contrast to the mixture of Louisianians, Mississippians, Kentuckians, Tennesseeans, Baratarians, Indians, and negroes that made up Jackson's army.

When the British had nearly reached the American breastworks, it was found that their scaling ladders had been forgotten. They could not climb the breastworks without ladders, so they hastily sent back for them. Meantime, their troops were waiting in an open space, exposed to the fire of the Americans. A flash and roar that shook the earth came from Jackson's strong defense. The British fell like blades of grass before a mower. Their line gave way, but soon rallied and pressed forward.

A second time the storm of death-dealing bullets drove them back.

At last General Pakenham's regiment came up with the ladders. Pakenham dashed forward, waving his hat and cheering on his men, but he was not to command them long. His scarlet uniform was a target which the backwoodsmen could not miss, and he soon fell and was carried off the field mortally wounded. With the brilliant commander's death, the battle was lost to the British.

In this wonderful battle of New Orleans, the British greatly outnumbered the Americans. Yet the American loss was but eiq-ht men, while the British lost two thousand. After the victory, the women of New Orleans went down to the battlefield to care for the wounded. They found that it was the British, not their own men, who needed help.

The saddest part of the terrible loss was that the lives of all of these brave soldiers might have been saved, had there been a telegraph or cable to bring news quickly. Peace between America and England had been declared the day before General Pakenham came to New Orleans. But the battle was over and the dead were buried before it was known that peace had been made.

After the battle, the people in New Orleans were wild with joy and paid great honor to General Jackson. It would be pleasant to end the story here, but there is more that must be told. When the legislature thanked the heroes who had saved Louisiana, it did not so much as mention General Jackson's name. Jackson had forced the legislature to close, and after the battle he had kept the city under martial law. The legislature could not forgive him for this. It thought that he had no right to interfere with State laws.

General Jackson was brought before the court and fined a thousand dollars. He paid the fine, saying that every good citizen should obey the law. Long years after the War of 1812, Congress paid him back this money, with interest which amounted to thirty thousand dollars.

Jackson had put the city under the command of his soldiers because he did not trust the Creoles. He could not be blamed for this, as their own governor did not trust them. But both Jackson and Governor Claiborne lived to see that in this mistrust they made a great mistake.

The battle of the 8th of January was a grand victory for America. It saved New Orleans and the Mississippi River from falling into the hands of the English. If the English had got possession of the Mississippi Valley, the United States might have been cut in two, and in this case our country would have extended only to the Mississippi River, instead of spreading from ocean to ocean.

Questions. — i. Tell about the battle of the twenty-third.

2. What took place during the next two weeks?

3. When was the battle of New Orleans fought? Tell what you can about it.

4. How could an army so poorly trained and armed as the Americans were succeed against the large, well trained British forces ?

5. What was one result of Jackson's putting the city under martial law? Why had he thought martial law necessary?

Gold Medal presented by Congress TO Andrew Jackson

CHAPTER XLVI

THE MIDDLE PERIOD

The victory of New Orleans not only saved Louisiana — it united the people. Up to that time the Creoles had felt the shame of having been bought by the United States. They were suspicious and unjust. But when the British entered Lake Borgne, it was not the French nor the Americans who were in danger, it was the State of Louisiana. A common danger brought the people together, for French and Americans alike had to defend their homes. They ate the same food, slept side by side, fought in the same regiments, and each found Q:ood in the other. When the war was over, it was the united Louisianians who rejoiced over the victory.

Claiborne was governor thirteen years. After his administration we find both Creole and American names in the long list of governors between 1816 and the present time. So it was in every business and profession. The Creoles and Americans married one another, and as their children's children grew up, the Louisianians became truly one people.

After the British were driven away from. Louisiana, the history of the State for a long time was uneventful. In those days, as now, the governors were able men, chosen by the people to be at the head of their government. There was no more giving away of the people, or selling them. The Louisianians were living the quiet, happy life of a prosperous people.

Settlers from Georgia, Mississippi, Kentucky, and other States came into Louisiana bringing money to invest and new ideas. The population spread from the south to the northern, western, and eastern part of the State. More plantations were started in cotton, cane, and tobacco; towns were built; steamboats went up and down the Mississippi. In 1S30 the first railroad in the State was built between New Orleans and Milneburg, and four years later New Orleans was lighted by gas. In this time of growth better laws were made. Changes were made in the State constitution, and each change meant more power placed in the hands of the people.

But there was shadow as well as sunshine. Evil days fell upon the Louisianians, bringing overflows and yellow fever. The levees were not well built. Every few years parts of them gave way, and the Mississippi swept over the rich crops of cotton and cane. The loss to the State meant thousands of dollars.

Even worse than the devourinor water was the terrible yellow fever. The doctors at that time did not understand how to treat the fever, and had not learned how to keep it out of New Orleans. One of the worst yellow fever epidemics occurred in 1853. In the spring of that year, two vessels on their way to New Orleans stopped at Rio Janeiro, where the captain of one vessel and several of the crew took the yellow fever and soon died. When the ships reached New Orleans, an immigrant from one of them was taken to the charity hospital and died in a few hours. In a few days the fever broke out in another part of the city, then in another, and another. It seemed as if the air was laden with the germs which brought death to one out of every ten persons. A great many of the citizens left for the North. Those who could not go away bravely awaited their fate. It seemed mere chance whether it should be life or death. During the first week of August, the death Hst from the fever was nine hundred and forty-seven. It was hard to find enough well persons to dig the graves for those who died.

A View on the Levee, New Orleans, 1850

On the 22d of August the fever was at its height. Two hundred and eighty-three died that day. The next day there were twenty-five less, the next fewer still, until the scourge had spent its force.

One would think that a city so often*visited by a terrible fever would soon become deserted. But not so; in spite of overflows and yellow fever New Orleans grew larger and the parishes became thickly settled.

As the State prospered, more attention was paid to education. Far back in the early days of Louisiana, Bienville saw the need of education in his little colony. You remember that though he was not governor when the Ursuline nuns opened a school for girls, yet it was owing to his efforts that the Sisters came to Louisiana. Bienville tried to get the king of France to establish a school for boys, but Louis XV did not think it worth while. A monk. Father Cecil, taught the first school for boys in the State.

When Louisiana became a territory of the United States, its legislature took an interest in education. Colleges and public schools were established from time to time. The State gave money to the colleges, but did not seem to understand that lower schools were needed. The children of the rich and of those who Hved comfortably went to private schools or had tutors and governesses. It was not until 1845 that the people began to'feel the value of public schools.

Some years before, Governor Roman had said that the schools in Louisiana should be free, and the rich and the poor should be taught together.

A View of New Orleans in 1052

Governor Roman meant that every child in the State should be given a chance to show what was in him, and that those who did the best work should be the ones to have the best start in life. The same year, 1845, Alexander Dimitry was appointed the first superintendent of education.

The public schools, once started, prospered until the breaking out of the Civil War, in 1861. A long time after this war, Louisiana was under the control of men who stole the State's money; but when honest men got into power again, they remembered the children. Schools have now become a part of the State's progress.

Louisiana has two universities, a normal school, two industrial schools, and numerous colleges and private schools. Many of these have beautiful buildings, well heated and lighted, fitted with comfortabte'seats, desks, blackboards, and libraries. Often there are window gardens to make the rooms homelike. Every year, as the teachers become more thoughtful and intelligent, they take greater interest in the health of the children. This will make the children of Louisiana go out from the public schools a strong race with vigorous bodies and clear brains.

Questions. — I. Mention some of the things that had long kept the inhabitants of Louisiana from becoming united as one people.

2. What experiences brought the Louisianians together?

3. How long ago was the first railroad in the State built?

4. What were the two greatest enemies to the growth and prosperity of the State?

5. Why are free public schools one of the very best things a State can provide for its citizens?

6. Find out what college is nearest your home. What industrial school.

CHAPTER XLVII

ZACHARY TAYLOR

Louisiana has a claim upon one of the long file of Presidents who have passed to the White House. When Zachary Taylor was elected President of the United States, he owned a plantation in Louisiana and considered this State his home. Virginia and Kentucky also claim. President Taylor, for he was born in Virginia in 1784, and while he was a little boy, his father moved to Kentucky. Kentucky was not a safe place in which to live at that time. The Indians still thought it their rightful hunting ground, and were not willing to have white people settle there. For this reason the settlers' lives were constantly in danger.

Every night the Taylor boys helped their father barricade the doors and load the guns. They learned to throw the tomahawk, and to load and shoot while running. They even went armed to school, for the Indians were very bold, and had been known to come very close to the schoolhouse. At one time, when the boys of the neighborhood were going home from school, three of them were captured and killed only a few minutes after they had parted from Zachary and his elder brother Hancock.

Brought up in a time of such danger, most of the boys in the settlement were watchful and brave. Many of them became soldiers when they grew up. Hancock Taylor, when a very young man, was appointed first lieutenant in the United States army. Zachary, too, wished to be a soldier, so he joined the State militia and went on many raids against the Indians. Most of his time, however, was spent at home working on his father's farm.

When Zachary was twenty-four years old, his brother Hancock died. Then Zachary was made first lieutenant in Hancock's place. He was sent to Indiana to punish the Indians who were burning the homes of the settlers from Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Lieutenant Taylor was in the West several years. When he was not fighting, he was studying his profession, and getting ready for his life work in the army.

After a time the United States government began to notice the successful young soldier who laid his plans so wisely and led his men so bravely. Lieutenant Taylor was made a captain, then a major, and in a few years more he became a colonel.

Colonel Taylor was sent to settle the Indian troubles in Florida. He was the same skillful, coolheaded officer in Florida that he had been in the West, and the government now honored him with the title of general. He was put in command of the Department of the Southwest. Louisiana was one of the States in this department, and the headquarters were at Baton Rouge.

The United States barracks at Baton Rouge were on the site of the old Spanish fort. When the Taylors reached their new home, it was thought that the commanding officer would live in one of the handsome brick houses of the post, but the Taylors were simple folk. They chose a rambling old house with wide galleries, where roses bloomed from March until Christmas, and here they lived very happily. The general was a short, stout, rosyfaced person, as fond of his comfortable home as was Mrs. Taylor, who had gentle manners, and who loved to work in her beautiful flower garden. She raised vegetables, and took pride in making all the butter used on her table.

In 1845 the home life of the Taylors was broken up. There was danger of war between the United States and Mexico. Many years before some Americans had settled in Texas. They gradually came to own much property, and thought that they should have a share in the government; but their ideas were so different from those of the Mexicans, who owned Texas, that there was constant trouble. At last the differences of opinion led to fighting. The Americans were victorious, and took possession of the country, making it an independent republic. After four or five years the Republic of Texas asked to be admitted into the Union. The United States accepted the new territory and set about fixing the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

ZACHARY TAYLOR

This question of the boundary line led to more trouble. The Mexicans thought that the Americans were claiming more territory than belonged to them. So General Taylor was ordered to march to the frontier and defend the rights of the Union. When he reached the Rio Grande River, he at once set about building fortifications. The Mexicans did the same on their side of the Rio Grande, which is the natural boundary between Texas and Mexico. The two armies then waited, watching each other. At the end of several weeks the Mexican general wrote to General Taylor that he had been ordered to break up the American camp, and that the Americans had better leave while there was time. General Taylor sent back word that he should stay where he was.

At this reply the Mexicans crossed the river and the war began. General Taylor wrote to the governor of Louisiana, Governor Isaac Johnson, for more troops. The legislature of Louisiana voted a hundred thousand dollars to help carry on the war, and regiments from different parts of the State went at the call of General Taylor.

The American army entered Mexico and won battle after battle. When the Americans reached Monterey, the Mexicans felt safe, for the stone walls of the houses were built high above the roofs, and the Mexicans could hide behind these and shoot down upon the enemy. But in spite of this strong defense, General Taylor entered the town and marched his men to a fort which had been left open. Here they turned their guns upon the Mexicans, who had been keeping up a constant fire from the tops of the houses. The Mexicans scattered like chaff before the wind. In a short time Monterey was in the hands of General Taylor.

The government sent General Scott, another famous American, to storm the City of Mexico. General Scott was ordered to take General Taylor's best-trained men. General Scott did not wish to do this, for he knew that General Taylor would have liked to be sent to the City of Mexico himself. But Scott had to obey orders. When General Taylor bade his soldiers good-by, he told them to do their duty like brave men.

General Taylor would indeed have liked to go with the troops to the City of Mexico, but as events turned out, there was enough for him to do elsewhere. Santa. Anna, the most noted of all the Mexican generals, thought that this would be a good time to attack General Taylor's weakened forces. When the American commander heard that Santa Anna was advancing toward him, he took his men to a mountain pass called Buena Vista, and waited. General Taylor sat on his war horse, Old Whitey. Back of him was his little army of five thousand men. They were few in number, but all had steady hands and brave hearts, as they watched the Mexican host of twenty thousand advance in orderly array far down the mountain.

Soon a Mexican soldier bearinor a white fiacj of truce galloped up the pass. He brought a letter from Santa Anna to General Taylor. Santa Anna wrote that if there was a battle the American army would be cut to pieces, but, as General Taylor was a worthy man, he would give him a chance to surrender. Santa Anna gave General Taylor an hour to make up his mind. General Taylor did not wish this hour. He sent back word at once that he had no intention of surrendering. The battle began immediately. It was the most brilliant of General Taylor's victories in Mexico. It is called the battle of Buena Vista.

Several months after this battle the war came to an end by the surrender of the Mexicans. Then General Taylor went back to Louisiana. His countrymen felt that they could not honor him enough. Many cities and towns invited him to visit them, and wherever he went, there were bonfires, street parades, banquets, and receptions. Finally General Taylor was elected President of the United States.

As an officer. General Taylor was beloved by his men. Old Rough and Ready, as his soldiers called him, would not wear his uniform, and clung to an old black hat with a twine string for a band and the crown half gone. But his troops knew that an able commander was wearing those shabby clothes, and that no danger could throw him off his guard.

Once in a while, however, the general considered it a matter of duty to look his best. When he was in Texas, Commodore Conner sent word that he should Hke to pay his respects. General Taylor knew that the commodore was fond of dress, so he decided to wear a uniform. He rushed to his tent and dragged out from a chest a rumpled coat, which he put on in such haste that three buttonholes stood above his collar with no buttons to meet them. Then the general, feeling stiff and miserable, sat bolt upright to await the commodore.

But Commodore Conner, knowing General Taylor's habits, thought it would be in bad form to appear in full dress, so he wore a suit of white drilling. As the two men shook hands, there was a sly look of merriment on the face of each.

When General Taylor became President of the United States, the high position did not turn his head. He was always as simple in his manners and as faithful in performing his duty as he had been on his father's farm and on the battle-field.

Questions. — i. Tell something of the early history of Texas.

2. What brought on the war between the United States and Mexico in 1845?

3. Tell all you can about General Taylor:

(i) His boyhood.

(2) His rise in the army.

(3) In the Mexican War.

(4) As President.

(5) His personal characteristics.

CHAPTER XLVIII

AUDUBON

There was born on a Louisiana plantation, on May 4, 1780, a boy who was one day to become a famous man. This boy's name was John James Audubon. His father was an officer in the French navy.

Little Audubon was not like most other children. Instead of playing with boys of his own age, he liked to spend hour after hour in his father's big garden, watching the mocking birds, blue jays, redbirds, orioles, and woodpeckers. He learned how the birds build their nests and get their food. He noticed the coloring of every feather, and when he had studied the birds a long time, he began to paint them. He made pictures that were wonderfully lifelike for the work of a little boy.

When Audubon was twelve or thirteen years old, his father's work called him to France, and he took his family with him. Audubon's mother was proud of the boy's beauty. She dressed him in velvet and lace, and had him taught music and dancing. But, though he was fond of music and liked to dance, he liked better to roam in the woods. He painted the French birds, and brought home birds' nests and pieces of moss and rocks.

The commodore, as Audubon's father was called, said that his son was filling the house with trash. One day he told Audubon that it was time to stop painting birds and get to serious work. He sent Audubon to a school where boys were trained for the sea, but Audubon did not like that kind of life. The commodore asked him what he would rather do. Audubon said that he wished to be an artist and paint American birds.

Was ever a father more disappointed ? He had set his heart on seeing the boy a brilliant naval ofificer, winning victories for France. But the commodore was a sensible man, and knew that it was wisest to let his son follow the bent of his own talent. So Audubon began to study under a famous artist named David.

When he had learned to paint pretty well, he became discontented. How could he paint birds without seeing them ? Stuffed birds and copies were no inspiration. The commodore finally made Audubon the present of a large plantation in Pennsylvania, and the young artist returned to America. He owned miles and miles of woodland, the home of thousands of birds. On the plantation was a big rock in which there was a cave. Audubon took this for his home, and put in it a bed, a table, a chair, and a cupboard for his dishes. He put away his fine clothes, and got a hunter's suit of buckskin. Now he was ready to study the birds. At first the little feathered creatures were afraid of him, but they soon made friends with this lone man of the woods. They quarreled and fought and went to housekeeping and raised their little ones near his cave without taking any notice of him.

Audubon never killed a bird except to study it. He learned to put the dead birds on wires, and by means of threads to raise or lower the head, wings, or tail. This helped him in his study, for it was almost like having a live bird before him.

When Audubon's father died, he left his son a large amount of money. Audubon decided to go into business. He married a lady named Lucy Bakewell, and they went to Louisville. Here Audubon opened a large store, but he was no business man. He lost all his money and had to start over again. He felt that he must go back to the work he loved and could do best. Some people thought it a waste of time to study birds. But Audubon's wife had faith in him. She ureed him to continue his study, and helped him by going to the little town of Bayou Sara in Louisiana and opening a school. The wealthy planters near Bayou Sara were glad to pay a large sum of money to have their daughters taught by so gifted a woman as Mrs. Axidubon.

John J. Audubon

When his noble wife had gone to Bayou Sara, Audubon and his son, Victor, crossed the Mississippi. They went deep into the lonely wood, and there made their home. They lived on roots and berries, and slept under the trees. Often they had to wade through treacherous swamps, but they did not mind the hardships. They were thinking of the wonderful work, in which Victor was coming to take as great an interest as his father. Audubon taught Victor to paint, and to recognize the different birds and know their habits.

At last, after many years of patient labor, Audubon began to feel satisfied with what he had done. He had written the life history and made drawings of American birds. He was becoming a famous man. In 1827 he went to England. Everywhere the people were delighted with the beautiful books of the great artist. He was invited to take dinner with rich noblemen, and met noted writers, musicians, and artists.

But though Audubon was greatly admired, he was still very poor. As he sat at rich men's tables splendid with gold and silver dishes and sparkling glass, a queer little smile sometimes crossed his face as he wondered where he would get his next meal. Sir Thomas Lawrence, a noted portrait painter, helped him to sell his pictures, and this brought him a small income. But Audubon knew that to get money to have his book on "American Birds" published, the king must approve it. How could he manage to meet the king?

Audubon called upon Mr. Gallatin, the American minister to England, to talk the matter over. The minister thought the artist a very simple man to imagine that the king would see him. He told Audubon that he, the American ambassador, had to wait six weeks before his Majesty granted him a meeting, which lasted but five or six minutes.

But Audubon had made one friend who knew what his work was worth. Sir Walter Waller was the friend's name. Sir Walter said that the king must see those beautiful American birds that were so lifelike that one almost expected to hear them sing. He himself took the drawings to the king. His Majesty was charmed.

" They are fine !" he said. " Fine ! " And he put down his name for one of the books, not as a king, he said, but as a gentleman who loved what was beautiful and true.

The king told Sir Walter that Audubon might publish his book under the protection of the crown. At last, after so many years of work and poverty, success had come. Audubon's fortune was made. When it became known that the king had bought one of his books, many rich people subscribed for copies. Indeed, any one who bought "American Birds" must be rich, for the price was one thousand dollars.

As soon as he was sure of success, Audubon's first thought was of his true-hearted wife and boy at home in America. He returned to this country, where his wife and son became his agents. They sold many of the books. Audubon bought a home on the Hudson River. He named the estate for his wife. All the world now honored the artist. Kings and emperors sent him costly gifts; scientific societies added titles to his name.

Audubon lived to be an old man, and when he died, was buried in New York City. A monument was raised to his memory, and his home, now within the city, is called Audubon Park. The State of his birth, Louisiana, also has a park in New Orleans named for him. The Audubon Society for children is the memorial which the great artist would most have appreciated. In this society children are taught the usefulness of birds to man, and to love and protect the beautiful, timid creatures who were so dear to the gentle Audubon.

Questions. — i. What was Audubon's great work ?

2. Explain how he learned so much about birds.

3. Tell the story of Audubon's life.

4. Find out all you can about the Audubon Society.

CHAPTER XLIX

THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR

The saddest hours in Louisiana's history were yet to come. In 1861 the Civil War broke out between the Northern and the Southern States.

To understand some of the causes which led to this war, we must go back many years. When the Revolutionary War was over and America was free from Great Britain, thoughtful men saw that the States could never prosper or be protected unless they united and formed a strong government. The colonies, however, had felt the power of England. They feared that if they united they would not be able to leave the Union at any time that they wished. They finally decided to join together as the United States of America, but it was understood that any State could withdraw if it chose. All the States, both Northern and Southern, made the same claim. In 1811 Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts said that his State ought to leave the Union if Louisiana were admitted. Before and after this time, other States made similar assertions of the right of a State to leave the Union. When the nation was young, if there were disputes between Congress and the different States, Congress gave way to prevent trouble.

In 1832 South Carolina refused to pay a tax which had been authorized by Congress. By this time there were people who said that the States must obey the laws made by Congress, and that they had no right to leave the Union, or secede, as it was called. General Andrew Jackson, who was then President of the United States, held this view, and there would have been trouble if the tax had not been lowered.

As the years went by, the Union grew stronger. Every year there were more people who earnestly believed that the Constitution of the United States showed that a State could not secede. Others read the Constitution differently, and just as earnestly believed that the States had only entered into a contract which was to last so long as they felt benefited by it.

There was another question to which the people gave serious thought. This was slavery. The traders who came from Africa with shiploads of negroes were Northern men who first sold their slaves both to the North and South. There were large factories in the North where cloth, shoes, and other goods were made. The slaves were not intelligent enouo-h to work in the factories, and the climate was too cold for them; so slavery died out in the North. The negroes were, however, well suited to work on the big cotton, cane, and tobacco plantations of the warm South. Both sections of the country felt the wrong of slavery. The South felt it even more than the North. She had millions of a lower race of people in her midst, and feared that, as years went by, evil would result. Yet she could not afford to do without the slaves, for her wealth lay in her soil, which the negroes worked.

Picking Cotton

This state of affairs might have lasted for many years if it had not been for two important events. One of these was the invention of a machine known as the cotton gin; the other was the Louisiana Purchase.

In 1793, Eli Whitney, a Massachusetts man, was visiting in Georgia. While there he saw negroes picking seed from the cotton by hand.

In this slow way one negro could not clean more than one pound of cotton a day, though, by using a little machine called a roller-gin, five pounds was a day's work. As Whitney watched the negroes, an ingenious idea came to him. It resulted in his inventing a machine which in one day would clean a thousand pounds of cotton. Henceforth the South could furnish all the Northern and English mills with cotton. This made cotton raising more and more profitable. Plantations increased rapidly, and the negro traders could hardly bring in slaves fast enough to work in the wide cotton fields.

In 1803, the time of the Louisiana Purchase, the States east of the Mississippi River were about evenly divided into slave and free States. Both North and South were content with this arransfement. When the territories west of the Mississippi wanted to enter the Union as States, the question arose whether they should come in as free or slave States. The North declared that slaves could not be taken into the new purchase. The South insisted that the Constitution and the Supreme Court of the United States both declared that slaves were property, and that the court had decided that a man could take his property wherever he went.

Whitney's Cotton Gin

After the original model

The real difficulty lay in the fact that the country had grown until both North and South contained a great many people, and both sections were fighting for power. Their business interests were different, and a tax which would help the Northern manufacturer would perhaps injure the Southern planter. If the Western territories were settled by Northern people, the North would have more power in Congress and could pass laws beneficial to the North and harmful to the South.

The people of both sections of the country were deeply stirred. Conventions were held, and wise men on each side urged their party to give up a little and keep the peace. But the excitement was too great for the difficulty to be settled peacefully. Though the slaves, as a rule, had kind masters and were happy, many people in the North began to write articles telling with what horrible cruelty the negroes were treated. The South became more angry than before, and determined to leave the Union. She believed that she had the right to do this, as the States had entered the Union with the understanding that each could withdraw at any time that it chose. South Carolina was the first State to withdraw, and other States soon followed.

In March, 1861, a convention met in the Capitol at Baton Rouge. The wisest men in Louisiana thought that the people were acting with too great haste. They said it would be better to wait until every effort had been made to bring the two parts of the country to a peaceable agreement. Several of these men spoke with deep feeling before the convention. They implored the delegates to consider what a serious thing it was to break up the Union. They reminded them that the sacred history of our country belonged to both sections, that Northern and Southern men had framed the Constitution, had fought together in the wars with Great Britain and Mexico, and had rejoiced over the same victories.

But the eloquent speakers saw in the determined faces before them that most of the members of the convention had made up their minds to secede. Every Louisianian must be true to his State, so, with tears streaming down their cheeks, many of the speakers signed the ordinance of secession. This ordinance, which declared Louisiana to be no longer a State in the Union, was read on the boulevard fronting the state house. By some it was received with wild cheers, but hundreds turned away with sorrowful faces.

Jefferson Davis

When Thomas O. Moore, who was governor at the time, called for troops, men fiocked in from all the parishes. Every home was open to the soldiers, and ladies went in the afternoons to see the regiments drill. The towns were gay with the sounds of fife and drum, and the stirring strains of Dixie and the Bonnie Blue Flao^.

In February, 1861, representatives from the Southern States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a government. The new government was called the Confederate States of America, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was made the President.

Questions. — i. Why did slaveholding die out in the North and increase in the South?

2. Tell about the invention of the cotton gin and its effect on the South.

3. How did the Louisiana Purchase, by adding a vast territory to the Union, affect the slavery question?

4. Describe the secession convention at Baton Rouge.

5. Tell about the organization of the Confederacy.

CHAPTER L

THE EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR

General Beauregard, a Louisianian, opened the war by capturing Fort Sumter in South Carolina. He had been ordered to attack the fort because the North was sending supplies and ammunition to strengthen it. General Beauregard was trained to be a soldier at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He had been a gallant officer in the Mexican War, and when the Civil War broke out was superintendent at West Point. When Louisiana seceded, he gave up his position, his hopes, and ambitions, and, like a true-hearted man, went back to his own people.

At the fall of Fort Sumter, both North and South felt that the war had begun in earnest. Yet the Louisianians did not think it would ever reach their own State. For this reason most of the troops were sent to other States. Thus Louisiana was left unprotected.

One of the first plans of the Federals, as the Northerners were called, was to get possession of the Mississippi River. If they controlled the Mississippi, the Confederacy would be cut in two, for on the west side of the river were Arkansas, Texas, and a large part of Louisiana. These States formed an important part of the Confederate territory.

The Confederate government now made the same fatal mistake that the United States government had made in the War of 1812. It was blind to the importance of New Orleans. General Lovell was stationed there. He had been sending his men to General Beauregard, and had but three thousand left under his own command. Only twelve hundred of these were armed. The fleet which was to defend the city was a pitiful collection of old steamboats, fitted out with oruns and otherwise made as warlike as possible. They were given the fierce-sounding names of the Warrior, the Defiance, and the Resolute, but there was no hope of their striking terror to the enemy.

New Orleans was protected from below by Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. A raft of chains and logs was stretched across the river from one fort to the other to stop the Federal gunboats. The two forts had fifteen hundred men between them, and very little ammunition.

p. G. T. Beauregard

The Federal fleet, under the command of Commodore Farragut, was large and powerful. Farragut had all the men and ammunition that he needed, and his officers were trained seamen. In addition to the naval force there was an army of thirteen thousand men under General B. F. Butler.

On April 19, 1862, Farragut came up the river as far as the forts, and there determined upon a brave and daring act. While Commander Porter, one of his officers, was shelling the forts, Farragut boldlybroke through the chains and steamed toward New Orleans. It was a brave deed — one of the bravest in the history of our country. The news spread that Farragut was nearing the unprotected city. General Lovell thought it best to withdraw his troops. He had no chance against so powerful a foe, and knew that it would be better for the people of New Orleans if there were no Confederate soldiers in the city unless there were enough to protect them properly.

The night before the Federals landed, no one slept in New Orleans. Most of the men were away at the war, but the remaining citizens had hauled all the cotton and provisions from the warehouses to the levee. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton and hundreds of barrels of salt meat and suear were set on fire. This was done so that the enemy might not seize them. When night fell, it seemed as if some wicked fairy had passed her wand over the city and changed it into the home of evil spirits. The smell of burning meat, sugar, and molasses spread everywhere; the flames from the cotton bales sent out fitful gleams and at last swept in wide sheets to meet the black clouds; while from below came the sounds of booming cannon.

Capture of Forts Jackson and St. Philip by Farragut

All through that awful night men and women sat with pale faces, and with despair in their hearts. If the Federal troops captured New Orleans, they would have the key to the Mississippi Valley. Victory seemed to be deserting the Southern cause.

In the morning, Farragut steamed slowly up to the city. Two officers were sent from the flagship to demand the surrender of New Orleans. Mayor Monroe said that he had no military authority to give up the city, but as there were no soldiers to defend it, the enemy could take it. Federal troops lined the streets as the State flag was taken down and the United States flag was raised over the mint and city hall. New Orleans was captured.

Farragut now turned the city over to General Butler. Before Farragut had taken formal possession of New Orleans, several sailors, without his permission or knowledge, had hoisted the United States flag over the mint. Some wild boys, eighteen or nineteen years old, made a dash at the flag and pulled it down. One of the boys, named Mumford, was caught. The first act of General Butler, when he had taken command of New Orleans, was to hang this boy. The citizens did all they could to save the thoughtless lad's life. They explained to General Butler that the United States flag had not been hoisted by the command of Commodore Farragut, and that the city at that time was not in the hands of the Federals.

General Butler, however, showed no mercy. He arrested ladies and gentlemen and sent them to Ship Island to work under a negro guard. Then he and his officers took possession of their elegant homes and stole the costly and beautiful articles which make up the homes of wealthy people. Thousands of dollars' worth of furniture, pictures, books, and silver were sent to the North. He armed the negroes to fight in the war waged against their former masters. In every possible way he wronged and insulted the citizens. Finally the better class of people in the North, some of Butler's own soldiers, and the House of Commons in England blamed those who had sent such a man to New Orleans. He was then removed. Like O'Reilly, Butler left no friends behind him. Butler's place was filled by General N. P. Banks.

Questions. — i. Why was the possession of New Orleans important in the war?

2. What defense did New Orleans have?

3. Describe Farragut's capture of the city.

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Old City Hall, New Orleans

Where the officers of the fleet came to demand surrender of the city.

CHAPTER LI

THE WAR AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS

The capture of New Orleans was only the beginninsf of Farrao-ut's work. It would not be finished until he had joined a Federal fieet above Vicksburg and had the clear sweep of the Mississippi River.

The commodore now sent seven of his gunboats up the river to capture the towns on its banks. Baton Rouge and Natchez were not fortified, and surrendered, but Vicksburg and Port Hudson were able to hold out. Farragut then went up the river himself, and though the batteries at Vicksburg poured down shells upon his fleet, he passed them as bravely as he had sailed between Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. When Vicksburg was taken, Farragut went back to New Orleans.

Meanwhile the Confederates had resolved to try to regain Baton Rouge, which was under the command of the Federal general, Thomas Williams. The Confederate of^cer ordered to attack Baton Rouge was General Breckinridge, who had once been Vice-President of the United States. Breckinridge did not think there was any chance of retaking Baton Rouge unless the Confederate ram Arkansas reached there in time to protect him on the river side. The Arkansas had done some good fighting at Vicksburg, and had been ordered to Baton Rouge.

General Breckinridge waited until he received the news that the Arkansas had passed Bayou Sara; then he marched against Baton Rouge. The battle began at once, and was stubborn! \' fought by both sides. The Federals were at last pushed to the river. There, instead of being fired upon by the Arkansas, they came under the protection of their own gunboats. The battle was lost to the Confederates, and all because the Arkansas had not arrived on time.

Where was the Arkansas ? Breckinridge, in despair, asked himself the question a hundred times during the encounter. In the course of time he learned that as she sailed down the river her machinery had got out of order. Though her men worked desperately to repair the damage, when the ram was five miles from Baton Rouge, the engineer said nothing could be done. At the same moment the gunboats of the enemy were sighted. The commander of the Arkansas steered for the bank.

John C. Breckinridge

After the men had jumped ashore, the Arkansas was set on fire. As the flames reached the guns, they went off, and the little ram, without a guide, her flag flying, her guns booming, drifted downstream, gallantly fighting her last battle.

Not long after the battle at Baton Rouge, General Richard Taylor was appointed to take command of the Confederate forces in the State. General Taylor was the son of General Zachary Taylor, and an able oflicer. He did not come into the State with a well-drilled army. Confederates were becoming scarce, and he had to get his troops as best he could. At Opelousas Governor Moore gave him some militia, and in Vermilionville he met ExGovernor Mouton. With the aid of the ex-governor and the Creoles in that part of the State, General Taylor raised a small army.

The troops were collected none too soon. Taylor was attacked by a large Federal force sent up from New Orleans by General Banks, and was compelled to retreat to Natchitoches.

While General Taylor was in the Lafourche country, he went up the little bayou. Petit Anse, to Avery's Island. This island of a thousand acres was the home of Judge Avery. For a long time it had been known that there were salt wells on the island, and Judge Avery had boiled the salt down and given it to his neighbors and to the Confederate soldiers. The judge thought that if he were to deepen the wells, he could get more salt. When the workmen began to dig, they struck an immense bed of pure rock salt. Judge Avery gave up this mine to General Taylor to be used for the Confederacy. Later a Northern gunboat went up Petit Anse to shell the mine, but became tangled in the marsh and was glad to get away without accomplishing its mission. The mine is still worked, and it seems as if the salt would never be exhausted.

In 1863, the year that General Taylor retreated to Natchitoches, General Kirby Smith was sent to Louisiana. He was to have command of all the forces, with General Taylor under him. About this time General Banks crossed the Mississippi to aid in the siege of Port Hudson. General Taylor, now that it was no longer necessary to watch General Banks, went back into the southern parishes.

Taylor carried out a well-laid plan to surprise the enemy at Berwick Bay. He came upon them without the least warning, taking seventeen hundred prisoners. As many of these were sick, Taylor sent them to the hospitals in New Orleans. What most pleased the Confederates was the large supply of stores which they found in the Yankee camp — guns, ammunition, medicine, and plenty of good food. Taylor's men were sadly in need of all these things. It had been many months since the poor fellows had received enough to eat.

General Taylor next marched to the Mississippi and placed batteries on the river below Donaldsonville. He hoped to keep the Federal gunboats from passing between New Orleans and Port Hudson. He intended to send a force against New Orleans, but the sad news came that Vicksburg had fallen, and five days later Port Hudson surrendered to General Banks. The Federal gunboats now patrolled the Mississippi from north to south. The Confederacy was cut in two.

General Taylor was in a very dangerous position. There are in south Louisiana so many bayous which will float gunboats that his army was in peril from both land forces and fleets. He therefore retreated up Bayou Teche. The year 1S63 ^""^^ been a gloomy one for the Confederacy, not only in Louisiana, but all over the country, and the next year did not promise to be any brighter. The State was growing poorer, and the half-fed, half-clad soldiers in gray were becoming fewer in number.

The last battles in Louisiana were fought at Mansfield and Pleasant Hill in the northern part of the State. On the outskirts of Mansfield, General Taylor and his dwindling army stood at bay. Against them came a large force under General Banks. General Smith thought that Taylor should not fight such a large army, but Taylor said that he would defeat Banks. He did, and drove him back to the Mississippi.

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The next 3^ear General Lee, the commander in chief of the Confederate armies, surrendered, and the war was at an end. Millions of graves dotted the hills and valleys of our country; fire, sword, and famine had swept over the South; but the war had settled the question which had cost so much. The States would never be allowed to leave the Union.

Questions. — i. Give an account of General Breckinridge's attempt to take Baton Rouge from the Federals.

2. Tell about General Taylor's success at Berwick Bay.

3. Name the chief batdes that were fought in Louisiana.

4. Who were the commanders of the Confederate and the Federal forces in Louisiana?

CHAPTER LII

LOUISIANA IN 1864

Abraham Lincoln, who was President of the United States during the Civil War, did not beUeve that a State could secede. He said that the Southern States had never left the Union. President Lincoln knew that it was not according to the laws of a free country that a people should be under the rule of soldiers. He wanted as soon as possible to establish civil government; that is, a government in which the people rule themselves.

There were a few men in the South who, when the war broke out, would not leave the Union, though they could not make up their minds to fight against their State. Lincoln's plan was to form a State government of these Union men in the parts of the Southern States which were under the control of the Federals. When General Butler was in New Orleans, President Lincoln directed him to attempt to form a civil government, but the general was too busy getting together the valuables which he took away from New Orleans to think of the good of the people. After he was removed, General Banks took up the matter.

The President appointed a chief justice of the Supreme Court, and also put the lower courts in working order. In 1864 an election was held in South Louisiana, which was in the possession of the Federals. In this election Michael Hahn was chosen governor. In that same year the northern portion of the State, which was held by Confederates, elected Henry W. Allen governor. Louisiana should now have had her full share of civil rights, for she had two governors, two legislatures, and two capitals. The Federal capital was New Orleans, and the Confederate, Shreveport. At this time the planters were in great trouble because they could get no one to work their plantations. Though the negroes in the southern parishes had not yet been set free, Congress forbade any one returning a runaway slave to his master. Therefore, swarms of negroes deserted the plantations and hung idly about the streets and camps in New Orleans. The planters urged General Banks to make the negroes go to work. General Banks had not proved to be an able soldier, but he was a sensible man. He now did what was best for both negroes and white people. He gave certain orders and appointed an officer, called a provost marshal, to see that they were obeyed. Negroes were required to work if they had agreed to do so. They might work for whom they chose, but if they made a contract, they were forced to keep it; if they refused, they were turned over to the provost marshal and made to work on the streets without pay. Wages were to be paid by the month, and the marshal was to see that they were paid. He also settled disputes between the negroes and planters.

Henry W. Allen

What was going on in North Louisiana during this last year of the war ? Henry W. Allen, the governor, was born in Virginia, but had lived in Louisiana for many years. He had pledged his love and loyalty to his adopted State. When he came South, he first taught school, and later practiced law in a small town in Mississippi. After he had been there several years, he met an old planter from West Baton Rouge parish. The old man liked Allen's pleasant, frank manners, and persuaded him to settle in Baton Rouge. Through his new friend's influence, Allen soon had a large law practice. Several years later, at the death of the planter, it was found in his will that several of his plantations were to be sold very cheap to Allen.

When the Civil War broke out, Allen joined the Confederate army with the rank of colonel. He fought gallantly through many battles, but it is as the "War Governor" that the Louisianians knew him best and loved him. As soon as he became governor he visited his people to talk over with them ways in which they could help themselves. Governor Allen then went to Shreveport and set to work with energy. He made an arrangement by which sugar and cotton could be sold beyond the Rio Grande. The money received was to buy only what was absolutely necessary, the people cheerfully agreeing to do without everything else.

Small factories and stores were built, and the profit from them was put into the State treasury. From the pine trees turpentine was obtained; castor oil was made from the castor-oil plant, and other medicines from roots and herbs. A small foundry turned out pots, kettles, and pans; a card factory made cards for carding cotton. These cards were pieces of wood ten or twelve inches long and about six inches wide, with a handle in the middle. The pieces of wood were pierced with an awl, then wire was drawn through the holes and clinched on the back. The inside of the cards bristled like saws. Cotton was put between the two cards, and after a few deft movements from side to side, the carder tossed out long, slender flakes which were ready for the spinning wheel. When it had been spun, the thread was woven into cloth or knit into socks and stockings. Governor Allen encouraged the people to plant gardens, and to raise cowpeas, corn, and sweet potatoes, and as much cotton as possible.

Toward the close of the war, the Federal legislature met in New Orleans. It was made up of Northern and Southern men. The Northern members had come to Louisiana in the wake of the Federal army with the intention of getting rich quickly — honestly, if possible. The Southern members were those who had shouted loudest for the Confederacy when there was hope of success; but who, at the fall of New Orleans, had sided with Butler. These unworthy men passed an act declaring that all those who had signed the ordinance of secession, and who had held public office in the State, were guilty of treason.

A few months after the meeting of the legislature, the war closed. Governor Allen felt that he could not live in Louisiana under the new rule. He resolved to go to the City of Mexico. Before leaving, he spoke to his loved people for the last time. He told them that, as they had fought like men, as men they knew how to make peace. He said that they were not to sit down and weep over what could not be helped, but to go to work with a will.

Governor Allen died in the City of Mexico. Several years later his remains were brought to Baton Rouge.

Questions. — i. When did Louisiana have two state governments at the same time? How did this happen?

2. Tell what you know about our " War Governor."

3. What was done to supply clothing and medicines during the war?

CHAPTER LIII

LIFE IN LOUISIANA DURING THE WAR

During the war, while the men were in distant parts of the country fighting, the women and children at home suffered many hardships. The mother was now head of the family, and she had to keep the children fed and clothed. The women in the towns found this more difficult than those in the country. There was no work for them to do, and many ladies, to keep their families from starving, were forced to go to the Federal quartermaster and draw rations. They took their stand in a long file made up largely of negroes, the first to come being the first served. Even then, to get the rations, the women had to take an oath to be faithful to the United States Sfovernment.

On the plantations it was different. On every plantation there were a few faithful negroes who did not desert to the Yankees, and with the help of these the mistress managed pretty well. She and her " hands " raised chickens, worked a garden, and made a few bales of cotton. Ladies whose delicate hands had never been roughened by the slightest toil, learned to cook, wash, and iron, and hoe the gardens.

When the lower part of the State fell into the hands of the Federals, and the upper part was held by a few half-starved Confederates, the Louisiana women bravely accepted the situation. They knew they must depend upon themselves. They thought of many ingenious ways to get food and clothing. Tea, coffee, flour, and many other articles could not be raised at home. So coffee was made from sweet potatoes cut in little cubes and parched. For tea they used boiled sassafras roots. As few sugar mills were runnins:, both tea and coffee were sweetened with black molasses made in little home-made mills. Cakes were n)ade of meal sifted through fine cloth and sweetened with black molasses. As candles, soap, and starch could not be bought, they were prepared at home. The candles were made in this way: twisted strings were tied to a stick, and the stick was placed across tin molds so that each string fell exactly in the middle of the mold. Then melted tallow was poured into the molds, which were set in cold water.

Soap, too, was easily made. Lye was prepared by dripping water through ashes. This lye was boiled with scraps of fat meat and old bones, and there was the soap! Sometimes it was soft and sometimes it was hardened in molds, and even perfumed, if the maker was so fortunate as to have a little peppermint, or anything with a pleasant odor.

Pins and matches the plucky Louisianians could not make. This, however, was a small matter. Thorns with a piece of wax for the head took the place of pins, and there was always fire somewhere in the neighborhood where one could get a few live coals.

You need not think your grandmothers did not wear pretty clothes. During the first years of the war dresses were made of window curtains, sheets, and tablecloths. Afterwards, when these were gone, the Confederate women carded and spun cotton and wove cloth on little hand looms. They dyed the cloth different colors, as suited their fancy. Blackjack and walnut bark dyed the cotton black; laurel leaves dyed it yellow; wild indigo made it blue; and other colors were obtained by boiling the cloth wdth different leaves and barks and setting the colors with rusty nails. Shoes were sometimes made of old leather purses, bags, and the tops of trunks. If a lady wished to be especially elegant, she fashioned a pair of gloves from the legs of her husband's broadcloth trousers.

It was in the making of hats that the skill of the Confederate women rose to genius. These were made of palmetto, plaited in very fine strips, which were sewed together and bent into shape. They were bleached white with sulphur, and trimmed with flowers made of scraps of ribbon, silk, and velvet, and with feathers plucked from the geese, ducks, and chickens.

It was not only for their families that the Louisiana women worked in the trying days of the Civil War. They did a far more important work in clothing and feeding Confederate soldiers. Every town and neighborhood became a big sewing society where articles were made for the boys in gray. When the church bell rang, ladies and children would gather from all directions, carrying on their arms small baskets containing their scissors, needles, thimbles, and thread. At the beginning of the war, hat bands, handkerchiefs, and other dainty articles were embroidered; but later there was only time to make the most necessary clothing. Boys and girls picked to pieces old linen rags, making soft piles of what is called lint. This was used to put on the wounds of the soldiers.

The Federal soldiers kept guards on the outskirts of each town, letting no one in or out. Sometimes the people outside of the towns, particularly the soldiers, needed so badly to purchase goods that they became desperate. Then it was that their brave women relatives came to the rescue. Many a lady, who, in better days, would not have crossed alone the dark hall of her plantation home, now ran the blockade. This is how it was done. Two or three bales of cotton were put on a wagon; sometimes the gentle lady herself perched on the load, but usually she rode on horseback and an old negro took the reins. They started in the middle of the night, and wound through the woods, keeping from the highway as much as possible. The reason for doing this was that in every neighborhood there was a trifling class of men who would neither work nor go to war. They were called jayhawkers. They stole from the women and children, and thought themselves very lucky when a load of cotton fell into their hands.

If the travelers escaped the jayhawkers, they generally managed to slip into town and sell the cotton. It was fortunate that cotton brouorht grood prices in those days, for food and dry goods were very high. A barrel of flour cost fifteen hundred dollars; bacon and beef, twenty dollars a pound; sugar, coffee, and tea from forty to fifty dollars a pound. A calico dress cost three hundred dollars, and gloves, often not mates, were forty dollars a pair. This was in Confederate money, which many merchants would not take at all.

Getting out of the towns was harder than getting in, as the guards searched every one for fear that somethino: might be taken to Confederate soldiers. The women had to resort to many ways of deceiving the guards. Big hoop-skirts were worn in those days, and cloth to make uniforms, cavalry boots, bottles of brandy, and cans of powder were tied on the hoops. Quinine and calomel were sewed into belts, and into " rats" worn in the hair, and sometimes dolls were stuffed with medicine for the soldiers.

The Confederate women did their noblest work as nurses. The sick and wounded soldiers were carried to the largest church or hall in the town, where they were nursed with the tenderest devotion, and anything in the homes of the people was cheerfully given to them. It was hard for the women to stay at home and bear such heavy burdens; but through the anxious years only bright, hopeful letters went from the sorrowful South to warm the hearts of husbands and sweethearts in the army.

Questions. — i. Tell something about the life of the women on plantations during the war.

2. Why were they obliged to make for themselves the necessities of life ?

3. What were some of the things the women did to help the soldiers ?

4. Tell anything you can learn at home about life during the war.

A Pair of Wooden-soled Shoes

Worn by a Confederate soldier in the latter part of the war.

CHAPTER LIV

AFTER THE WAR

As Governor Allen had said, the Southerners had fought like men, and like men they knew how to make peace. They still believed that a State had a right to secede, but they had been defeated in trying to prove their cause, and were willing to let the matter rest. The Confederate soldiers surrendered in good faith. They went home from the war with their minds firmly made up to obey the United States laws and to feel no more bitterly than they could help.

It was a hard home-coming. Many of the soldiers who had lived in the towns returned to find their houses stripped from cellar to garret, and strangers living in them. Thousands never got back their property. Those who had Jived in the country found their broad acres overrun with grass and weeds; not a fence rail on the plantation; not a wagon, plow, horse, or mule; the sugar-house and cotton-gin burned; the wife and children often living in the quarters; and all that was left of the once stately home charred columns standing in a bed of ashes.

Now as to the soldier himself, sometimes a graduate of one of the English, Scotch, or German universities; perhaps owner of a splendid library and art treasures collected in Europe, or possessor of a laboratory or an observatory with a telescope which cost several thousand dollars. Did he appear like a fairy prince whose magic presence alone would restore order and thrift to the scene of desolation? The home-comer was ragged, barefoot, and halfstarved; often he was crippled, or had come home to die. Yet the brave Louisianians made the best of this state of affairs. The past could not be helped, it was gone; but the future was theirs, and they meant to use it well.

Most of the negroes, after some months of idleness, went back to their old masters and began to work for wages. Hard as times were, it was not long before parties were given and dancing feet aeain moved to the sound of the fiddle and bones. These gatherings were called "starvation parties," because there were no refreshments and the dancers looked as if they had dressed for a masked ball. Just after the war it was not considered respectable to dress well. Any one with money was suspected of having stayed at home to sell cotton to the Yankees instead of joining the army. Poverty was the badge of an aristocrat. It was only the young who knew how to live in the New South. The old people did not have courage to begin life anew, A good many sold out and went to France; a few went to California; but most of them, after a few years, died.

As President Lincoln had believed that the Southern States, though rebellious, were still in the Union, it seemed a simple matter to him to have the courts soon in running order, the representatives ? back in Congress, and the States on their old footing in the Union. He had said that the Louisianians should not lack a fair election if he could give it to them. Lincoln had in his heart no thought of revenge toward the Southern people. It was a terrible blow to the whole South when five days after the surrender he was killed by a half-crazed actor.

The next President, Andrew Johnson, felt kindly toward the South. He wanted to finish what Lincoln had begun, but went about it in a different way. He did not have Lincoln's good judgment nor his influence upon Congress. Worse even than Lincoln's death was the fact that at this time two of the most influential men in Congress worked against the South. These men were Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens.

For a long time there was a bitter quarrel between the President and Congress. Congress went so far as to try to put the President out of office. It did not succeed in this, but it did succeed in taking out of his hands the power to help the Southern States.

After the war an amendment, or new law, was added to the Constitution, setting the negroes free. Another amendment, called the Fourteenth Amendment, gave the negroes the right to vote. By this law also all the leading Southerners — all who had, previous to the war, held any State or national office and had in any way helped the Confederacy — were prohibited from holding any public office. The States could not enter the Union until they had aijreed to the Fourteenth Amendment.

At this same time Congress made new laws for the Freedman's Bureau. The Bureau had been established during the war for the purpose of looking after the needs of the negroes. Following the Fourteenth Amendment, the Bureau was given the power to sell lands which had been taken from Confederate soldiers and use the money for negro schools. If the Southern people interfered with the Bureau, United States soldiers were to settle the matter at the point of the bayonet. All the contracts between the negroes and the planters were to be first approved by the Bureau. The negroes believed that the United States government would support them for the rest of their lives, and that the property of the white people was to be divided among them, so as to give each negro forty acres and a mule. They would not work; taxes were high; no crops could be raised, and the planters were driven almost to distraction.

In the meantime there was a struggle in Louisiana to prevent the meeting of a convention, the object of which was to give the negroes the right to vote. There was a riot, and about forty-four negroes were killed. It was, however, useless to resist Congress. The followers of Sumner and Stevens declared that the South was conquered territory, and that it should be treated as such. The seceded States were divided into five military districts. Each district was to be under an office with a regiment of soldiers. General Sheridan was sent to Louisiana and Texas. The Louisianians protested that it was not lawful to put troops over a people in time of peace. They would prove in the courts that such an act was unlawful. General. Sheridan then removed the attorney-general and other officials from office. The courts were broken up. There was no longer self-government in Louisiana. She was under the rule of a dictator.

Questions. — i. What was Governor Allen's advice to the citizens of Louisiana?

2. Why was the assassination of Lincoln a misfortune to the South ?

3. What was the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution?

4. What was the Fourteenth Amendment?

5. What was the Freedman's Bureau?

CHAPTER LV

THE KU KLUX KLAN

Following the Federal army into Louisiana was a class of men who received the name of carpetbaggers. This name was given them because it was said that each one could carry all he owned in a carpet-bag. Many of the carpet-baggers were the riffraff of the North who saw the helpless condition of Louisiana and thought that it would be a good time to plunder her. General Sheridan, with his troops to back him, would not allow any man to vote who had not taken the oath that the Reconstruction Act required. This oath required a man to swear that he had never been in the Confederate army or given help to the Confederate soldiers. Louisiana's leading citizens could not take this Test Oath; they were, therefore, shut out from governing their own State, and Louisiana fell helpless into the hands of a few of her own unworthy citizens, ignorant negroes, and carpet-baggers.

In 1868, H. C. Warmoth, one of the newcomers, was elected governor; the lieutenant governor was Oscar J. Dunn, a negro. The negroes flocked to the side of the carpet-baggers, for the poor, untaught creatures looked upon these men as standing for the party which had freed them. They Hstened with beheving ears to the tales that now the blacks and whites were equal, that their children would go to the same schools, and that the property of the white people would be given to them. There was but one result to this kind of teaching. The negroes would not work, and became impudent and dangerous. They became a source of great peril.

The sons of Louisiana were crippled, but life was left to them, and they would give it, if necessary, to protect their homes. They could not stand forth in the light and give royal battle to the foe; but they could strike in the dark, and strike with the deadly aim of the rattlesnake of their own swamps.

It was at this time that the Ku Klux Klan undertook its work. In its beginning the Ku Klux Klan had no idea of the great good it was to accomplish in the South. The society began in a spirit of idleness and fun. One evening, not long after the war, several young men were sitting in a lawyer's office in a small Tennessee town. They had no money with which to go into business, and did not know what to do with themselves.

"Boys," said one of them, "let's get up a society of some sort!"

Just the thing! They all took to the idea at once. The purpose of the next meeting was to bring in more of their comrades, write a ritual for their society, and give it a name. One member suggested that a Greek word, Kuklos, meaning circle or band, would be a suitable name. Another said, " Let's call it Ku Klux." Another young fellow cried out, " Klan !" So there stood the brotherhood, the famous Ku Klux Klan.

The principal officers were the Grand Dragon and his eight Hydras; the Grand Titan and his six Furies; the Grand Cyclops and his two Night Hawks. The place of meeting was called the Den. Every member was required to have a white mask for the face; a tall cardboard hat, which made him appear much taller than he really was; a gown, white, black, or colored, to cover him completely; and a small whistle. The members swore to absolute secrecy.

The Klan met in a dreary place on the edge of the town. The house was an old, tumble-down building with a deep cellar, and was surrounded by trees whose huge trunks had been bent or broken by many storms. Negroes going by in the dark reported that strange happenings were taking place in the old house. There were uncanny sounds, such as piercing shrieks and bursts of insane laughter more terrifying to the belated traveler than the imagined wail of lost spirits. The house, it was said, would in an instant become brilliantly lighted from roof to cellar; there would be sounds of merry dancing to unearthly music. Then in the twinkling of an eye all would become as dark and silent as before. The roads about the Den became deserted after night-fall.

People began to think the Ku Klux must have some serious work to do, and to wonder what it was. The society spread, and dens were established throughout the Southern States. The Ku Klux noticed that disorderly blacks and whites began to behave better wherever there were dens.

During the reign of the carpet-baggers the Louisianians formed a secret society to protect themselves. It was called the League of the White Camellia, but after a time, all secret societies for self-protection in the Southern States were known as the Ku Klux Klan. Negroes under the influence of the carpet-baggers and teachers from the North often became impudent, or committed crimes which the white men had not the power to punish by law. Whenever this was the case, the Ku Klux would take a ride. At the witching hour of midnight, when all was quiet in the cabin, the trembling, smothered notes of a screech owl coming from the moist, dark wood would cause the sleepers to stir restlessly. Then came the sound of a soft whistle, and liorses' hoofs trampled before the cabin door.

Ku Klux Members

Permission of Dr. Walter L. Fleming.

The negroes sat bolt upright with gasping breath and eyes widened in fear. The door was opened, and hideous figures filled the room. All wore masks. Some were in white, while others wore black, with deep red circles about the eyes. Still others were headless. This effect was given by drawing the gown together over the head of the wearer. The headless Ku Klux carried a grinning skull on his arm and had skeleton fingers which he held out in a most friendly manner to shake hands with any one near him. Perhaps he said he was thirsty. The trembling negro would bring a bucket of water. Then the headless visitor would thrust aside the gourd dipper, and raising the bucket, pour down the whole contents — not into his stomach, however, but into a leather bag beneath his robe. When the last drop had disappeared, he would say: "That's good! It's hot where I came from, and this is the first water I've tasted since I was killed at Shiloh!"

The Ku Klux made the negroes believe they were the ghosts of Confederate soldiers. Before they left, a few words of good counsel would be spoken, and these always had a good effect. If the negro had committed a crime, his body was left dangling at the end of a rope from the nearest tree. Carpetbaggers who had a bad influence upon negroes received something like this: "Some live to-day, to-morrow die. You will be led out by the Klan and learnt to stretch hemp. Bludy Moon ! Black Knight! Last Hour! Beware! Beware!! Beware!!! Ku Klux." The carpet-bagger was not to be seen the next morning. In this way the newcomers were driven from small towns and country neighborhoods.

White people knew the Ku Klux were not ghosts, but they did not know who they were, and many were very anxious to find out. Once the Grand Dracjon sent word that on a certain night the Klan would parade through the streets of a town. The streets were full of curious people who felt they would now discover the secret. One man who said he knew every horse in the country lifted the covering from the horse of a Ku Klux, and, to his astonishment, found it was his own. No one ever found out who the Ku Klux were until they disbanded, and the members gave up the secrets of the order. The Klan kept together for two years. At the end of that time wicked men took advantage of the disguise to wreak vengeance on their enemies.

Permission of Dr. Walter L. Fleming.

They claimed to be Ku Klux, and their actions gave the society a bad name. The real Ku Klux Klan felt the day of their usefulness was over, so they disbanded.

Questions. — i. Who were the carpet-baggers?

2. What was the origin of the Ku Klux Klan?

3. How did it protect the community?

4. Describe some of the doings of the Ku Klux Klan.

CHAPTER LVI

THE REVOLUTION OF 1874

While the Ku Klux could protect the country people and those living in small towns, it could not take the State out of the hands of the carpet-baggers, for they were upheld by the United States government. In 1870, when Warmoth was governor, Louisiana became a den of thieves. The legislature was made up largely of negroes; the superintendent of education was a negro; nearly every office in the State was in the control of corrupt men. Robbery was wholesale. The expenses of a legislator were sometimes over one hundred dollars a day; the school funds were stolen; and the State was forty million dollars in debt. Other Southern States were in debt through misrule, but Louisiana was in the lead. All the State officials became rich; and Warmoth, the governor, who had entered office a poor man, at the end of-four years was worth a million dollars. This money came out of the people, who were taxed until they could not pay, and many lost their homes. Misery was widespread from one end of the State to the other.

At last the old saying that thieves will fall out came true. The officeholders began to quarrel over the plunder. Warmoth led one faction; two men named Packard and Carter led the other. Warmoth sent a report of affairs to President Grant at Washington. Packard did the same. Tlie two leaders kept up their dispute until the Packard party became the stronger and Warmoth, to save himself, joined the respectable class of Louisianians.

John McEnery was nominated governor, and was elected. The Packard party nominated Kellogg for governor. On this ticket the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, and superintendent of education were negroes. When McEnery was elected, the Packard faction seized the State House. The McEnery party took possession of the City Hall. Both McEnery and Kellogg were determined to have the oflfice, and President Grant was called upon to settle the question. Grant decided in favor of Kellogg. The quarrel, however, went on. McEnery began to drill militia. There were frequent fights between his militia and the metropolitan police, a body of soldiers that protected Kellogg. There were uprisings of the people in all the parishes. The Louisianians at length decided that this state of affairs should go on no longer. They formed themselves into a league, called the White League, and swore that they would have white rule, or die in the attempt.

On September 13, 1874, the White League published in the morning paper an appeal to all loyal citizens, urging them to meet the next clay on Canal Street in New Orleans. The morning of the 14th found the men of New Orleans answering to the call. A committee of five was sent to Kellogg to tell him that the people of the State considered that he had not got his ofifice honestly, and that he must give it up. But Kellogg was not to be found. He had taken refuge in the Custom House, where there was a Federal squad of armed men to protect him. There were no negroes to be seen on the streets that day. The citizens were told to go home and to meet again at two o'clock in the afternoon.

From different parts of the city men began to gather, and by three o'clock all was ready. The Metropolitans were the first to open fire. The League was poorly armed, but made a bold charge. Giving the " rebel yell," the old Confederates charged upon the Metropolitans, and chased them down the open levee, past the Custom House, where the United States troops were guarding Kellogg. As the citizen soldiers dashed past, the soldiers took off their caps and cheered them on. The Federal soldiers had been in the State long enough to understand the conditions, and most of them were in sympathy with the Louisianians. When night came, the city was in the control of the citizens. The victory was dearly won, for sixteen patriots had given their lives in the cause of liberty.

Were the Louisianians, now free ? Not yet.

President Grant sent down more troops to protect Kellogg. Yet something had been accomplished. When, seven months after the battle of the 14th of September armed men entered the senate chamber and put out members who had been elected, Congress sent a committee to find out what was the matter. The committee reported that the Louisianians wanted nothing but "justice, fair elections, and good government." The people in the North were a long time learning of the hardships of their sister State, but they learned at last.

In 1876, Francis T. Nicholls was elected governor. He received eight thousand more votes than Packard, who claimed that he had been elected.

Nicholls had been a brave soldier, and he was just as brave a citizen. He said, " I have been elected governor, and I intend to be a governor." Nicholls took the oath of ofifice on an open gallery fronting a park, and was cheered by thousands. Packard took the oath behind closed and guarded doors. For the third time Louisiana had two governors. In this election Federal troops did not interfere. They were soon afterwards removed, and the carpet-bag government fell to pieces. Louisiana, after ten years of struggle, was free.

Questions. — i. What was the condition of the State government for ten years after the war ?

2. Why was the White League formed ?

3. Tell about the events of the fourteenth of September, 1874.

CHAPTER LVII

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE

The long, desperate struggle was over; but the Louisianians had come into their birthright, and law, justice, and order again reigned. The same determined spirit which had carried them through the war, and which had given them strength to resist carpet-bag rule, now upheld them. With a purpose not to be set aside, they went to work to build up the State.

There were three drawbacks to Louisiana's progress. These were: the channels at the mouth of the Mississippi were not deep enough for the passage of big ships; the levees were not strong enough to hold back the Mississippi; and the State was in yearly danger of a yellow fever epidemic.

Far back in the early days of the State, about the time that Bienville succeeded in making New Orleans the capital of the new province, a French engineer saw that New Orleans might be given a deep waterway to the sea. The mouth of the Mississippi had no good channel on account of sandbars continually forming in the passes. Thus big ships could not go back and forth. The engineer of Bienville's day had proposed a plan to deepen the channel, but the struggling colony had no money for such a costly enterprise.

As time went by, dredging machines were used to take the sand away, but the work was expensive and could not be properly done. The merchants of New Orleans suffered heavy losses, for ships with rich cargoes were often aground many days on the sandbars. In 1874 an engineer, Captain James B. Eads, thought he saw a way to clear out the sand. His idea was much the same as that of the French engineer of Bienville's time. The plan of both was simply to let the Mississippi do her own dredging. Captain Eads built two long lines of "mattresses" made of willow, held firmly in place by long piles. One " mattress " extended from the east, the other from the west, leaving a passage of more than a half mile between them. The river, crowding restlessly to the gulf, could not pass over the " mattresses," and had to surge into the pass. Thus it cut deep into the sand, sending it whirling to the sea. Eads built the " jetties," as they were called, "in four years, and since their completion the produce of Louisiana has been carried through them to many foreign countries. The United States furnished the money to build tlic jetties.

If the levees were not kept sound, there would be no produce to send away. There was no way to put the Mississippi to work repairing the levees. The part that the river played was that of destruction. For many years the Mississippi and the planters fought for mastery, and in 1882 it appeared as if the river might win. In that year there were two hundred and eighty-four crevasses, — more than fiftysix miles of caving levees. This meant a great deal of water flooding the State. It was fun for the boys and girls to go craw-fishing, and to swirl through water down the railroad track on hand-cars. They could step from their galleries into pirogues, gliding over fields and through the woods. There was a new charm in the well-known places which now looked strange and weird.

^

Jetties at the Mouth of the Mississippi River

But fathers and mothers got no amusement from the overflows. To them every ripple of the creeping water seemed a death knell. Levee building cost a great deal of money. The Louisianians anxiously asked themselves how they could protect themselves. Probably they could not have done so, had not the United States government again helped them. Levees were built wide enough at the top for a carriage road, and at last the people felt safe.

The next important matter to be considered was some means to check the yellow fever epidemics. This seemed almost beyond human skill. In 1878 more than four thousand people in Louisiana died of yellow fever. Towns in which the fever raged were shut in, and towns still free of the fever were guarded night and day by armed men who turned back men, women, and children fleeing from the stricken localities. These people had to find shelter and food as best they could. They suffered intensely. Trains were not allowed to take out freight; steamboats were not permitted to land; business was dead, and the people from other States shunned Louisiana as they would a pesthouse.

Several years later relief came. A quarantine station was built at the mouth of the Mississippi. Officers visited the ships which came from ports where there was yellow fever. The ships were purified, and the passengers were not allowed to enter the State until there was no danger of their spreading the fever. The last terrible epidemic was that of 1878. The fever has come into the State several times since, but in a mild form, and people no longer dread it as formerly. It is now believed that yellow fever is caused by the bite of a mosquito, and it is thought that by killing the mosquitoes the disease may finally be kept away entirely.

Since 1882 many settlers from the Northern and Western States have come into Louisiana. These people were not accustomed to large tracts of land in their old homes, and they taught the Louisianians that, by using improved plows, rakes, and mowers, a good living might be made on a small place. The small farms are increasing. Many of them are planted almost entirely in Irish and sweet potatoes, onions, beans, tomatoes, melons, and fruits. There are two reasons for this. One is that in 1908 the boll weevil, which lives on cotton, appeared in Louisiana and forced the farmers to plant something to take its place. Another reason is that there is a great deal of profit in truck farming. Vegetables, fruits, and melons ripen early in the warm South, and can be shipped North several weeks before the Northern vegetables are ready. One great good resulting from the small farm is that it brings the country people nearer together. They build good roads, thus making it possible for the children within a certain distance to attend the same school. More money is put into the one school, and the country child can be better educated. He is taught to love the country, to study plant life, to study the soil, and to know that fortunes are to be made by those who go about farming in the right way.

Rapides Parish Court-house, Alexandria, La.

Marble Hall in the Custom House, New Orleans

The wealth of Louisiana is chiefly in her soil, but the time is coming when she will have many sources of wealth. She has valuable salt and sulphur mines; thousands of acres of untouched timber lands; rich prairies where herds of cattle are raised with little expense; since 1900 natural gas and oil have been discovered. Creameries and fruit and vea:etable canning factories are springing up over the State, and it will not be many years before cotton will be made into cloth in Louisiana's own mills, as her cane is now made into sugar.

Questions. — i. State two things done by the national government that have promoted the industries and commerce of Louisiana.

2. Explain the use of the jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi.

3. How can the State be protected against yellow fever?

4. What are some of the advantages of farming on a small scale?

5. Make a list of all the industries of Louisiana that you know about. Classify them as agriculture, manufacturing, mining, etc.

CHAPTER LVIII

LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS

We all belong to the same American family, therefore manners and customs throughout the Union are much alike. Emigrants from the Atlantic coast going to the South and West always carried some of their old habits. Yet the simple home life of each State differs in some respects from that of every other. Louisiana, especially the southern portion, has many customs peculiar to herself, owing to having been first settled by the French and Spanish. The northern part of the State is more under the influence of the English-speaking parts of the country.

Settlers from Tennessee and Georgia brought into North Louisiana, among other old customs, those of log-rolling and quilting bees. Long years ago, on reaching a place which he thought would make a suitable home, the settler cleared a space and built his house, but one man and his slaves could not cut down and roll away a sufficient number of logs to clear a plantation. Therefore, every spring the planters in a neighborhood took turns in helping one another. They collected on one plantation and cut down trees; then, by placing long poles under the logs, rolled them together and set them afire. The men next passed to some other plantation, and in this way, by clearing a few acres every year, farms of good size were soon made ready for planting. Thousands of acres of valuable timber thus went to ashes. In this more thrifty age, the loo:s would have been sent to sawmills and made into barrels, staves, and planks.

While the men were occupied with log-rolling, the women were holding a quilting bee. The industrious wife had spent many a long winter evening in making quilt patches. These were now sewed together, stretched in long frames, and quilted, the neighborly women turning out a fine pile of quilts.

In the fall there was another gathering of the neighbors. Sitting around blazing fires of pine knots, they merrily husked corn. The shucks were put into several cribs to be used for fodder, while other cribs were filled almost to bursting with the golden corn. The shucking always ended with a dance and a big supper.

One of the old-time customs in South Louisiana, which is still observed in a few parishes, is the Chiavari. When a widow or widower married, a man ran about screaming, "Fire! Fire!" Men, women, and children then gathered before the house of the newly married couple, shouting, beating on old kettles, tin pans, drums, clashing shovels and tongs together, blowing on combs, tooting horns, and making every loud noise imaginable. The policemen never interfered, for the crowd was always good-tempered. The Chiavari lasted until the bride and groom made their appearance. They were usually sensible enough to come out on the gallery and invite the people in to have a glass of wine. When this was done, the noise suddenly ceased, and after drinking the health of the newly wedded pair, the crowd went quietly home.

Long ago a rich and beautiful young widow married a man who was considered unworthy of her. The fair lady refused to be seen and moved from house to house, but the mob follow^ed. The Chiavari lasted three days and nights. Finally, in order to put a stop to it, the crowd was given three thousand dollars. This money, however, was not touched by a single person in the Chiavari; every cent of it was given to orphans.

A Creole lady never paid the first visit to a lady moving into her neighhborhood. It was considered true politeness to permit the new person to choose her associates. This practice has not died out.

The old-time usage of lagniappe is passing away. The word lagniappe is taken from the Spanish phrase la nappa, which means a sweetening — something to make one pleased with his bargain. Lagniappe in Louisiana means a small addition to a purchase, and was given only in grocery stores.

Only a few years ago, every grocer kept a box of candy or small cakes to be given away, and every customer looked upon lagniappe as his right, and demanded it. Small stores felt that giving away so much was too great a tax upon them, and they agreed to give no more lagniappe.

Buying a " quarti's worth " is very popular with housekeepers. When vegetables are cheap, five cents buys more of one kind of vegetable than a small family can use for a meal. Then the housekeeper may buy a quarti (half of five cents) of tomatoes, and a quarti of snap beans, thus getting two kinds of vegetables for five cents.

At one time, and but a few years ago, the keeping of Sunday in South Louisiana was different from what it now is. More buying was done on Sunday than on any other day, as many people had to work hard all the week, and put off the shopping to be done on their holiday. On Sunday the merchants spread out their wares most temptingly, and as the people passed down the streets with their loaded market baskets, they jostled against each other good-naturedly as they stopped outside the attractive show windows before going in to shop. A law, called the Sunday law, has been passed, which now requires merchants to close their stores on that day. Yet, in many parishes, while Sunday is no longer a day for business, it is looked upon as a day for pleasure. First, people go to church, and then to market, and Sunday marketing is never undertaken lightly, but performed with care and nice judgment. A little money is daily put aside by the poor for the Sunday dinner, and poor indeed must be the white or the black who passes out of the market without a chicken, a salad, and okra or file for gumbo. After the dinner there are different forms of amusement, such as baseball, horse racing, and a ball at night.

Questions. — i. Why do some parts of Louisiana have customs unlike those of any other parts of the United States?

2. Describe some of the ways in which neighbors helped one another in the early days.

3. Find out some customs peculiar to the State, besides those mentioned in the book.

Cotton Levee, New Orleans

CHAPTER LIX

LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS {continued)

Tournaments were common in most Southern States, and were a favorite form of amusement in Louisiana. On the day of the tournament, hundreds of people occupied rows of seats such as are now seen at the circus, while carriages and buggies crowded the grounds.

In the center of the race track was a wooden structure, upon the extended arms of which hung wooden rings. At the hour set for the tournament to begin, twenty-five young men appeared, sitting with graceful ease upon spirited horses. The men were dressed as knights, wearing in their hats waving plumes, and carrying pointed lances. Each knight, riding at full speed, was to capture as many rings as possible. The first started with lance poised and well aimed; following, in quick succession, another rode out; then another, and another, until all the contestants were dashing round and round the race track. When the rings were all captured, it was the privilege of the knight holding the greatest number on his lance to choose a lady upon whose head he placed a wreath of flowers, thus crowning her Queen of Love and Beauty. The knight taking the next largest number of rings crowned the First Maid of Honor, and so on until there were four in the royal party. At night there was always a ball, in which the successful knight and his queen led the dance.

Sometimes, instead of rings, an old gander was suspended in the center of the race track. As the riders shot past, each one tried to pull the neck of the dodging gander, and he who succeeded in holding the head in his hand won the right to choose the Queen. The "gander pulling" was a sport so cruel that rings were oftener used.

At one time in the United States quarrels and disagreements between men were settled by duel. Nowhere was this practice more popular than among the Creoles. A gentleman who felt himself wronged by another sent a challenge to the man who had offended him. He who received it might have intended no harm, and might consider dueling wrong, yet he would have been shunned as a coward if he had refused to fight. There was a law against dueling, but the people believed so firmly that it was the only honorable way to settle a difficulty, that the law was not enforced. After a challenge had been accepted, each man chose his second. The seconds selected the place of meeting, saw that the pistols or swords were in good condition, marked off the distance between the duelists, and gave the signal to begin.

The Oaks, one of the most famous dueling grounds in the world, was in the suburbs of New Orleans. Duels were fought over unimportant matters that in these days would call for scarcely a passing thought. A challenge would spring from a slight misunderstanding at a dance, an impolite act, or a difference of opinion. The following anecdote shows the temper of the men of that period. In a conversation among several gentlemen, one ventured the opinion that the Mississippi was a small stream compared with the rivers of Europe. A Creole instantly declared that he could not hear the Mississippi thus spoken of, and a challenge was given and accepted then and there. He who had held the old river in such light esteem received a sword thrust which left an ugly gash from cheek to cheek.

"The Oaks"

Between the years 1834 and 1844, scarcely a day passed without duels being fought at The Oaks. On one particular Sunday in 1838, ten duels were fought. The Oaks, more than a hundred years old, are still standing. If they could speak, their moss covered branches would tell us sorrowful stories of a custom now happily passed away.

The last day before Lent always falls on a Tuesday, — Mardi Gras, — which means "fat Tuesday." It was so called because it was the last day on which one might feast and dance before the opening of the Lenten season. The custom of masking on Mardi Gras was brought from France by the early settlers. During the period when Louisiana was a French, and later a Spanish, province, the maskers went from house to house, but there was no regular street parade until after the Americans came into the State. The Americans thought Mardi Gras might become a business enterprise, and be made so attractive as to draw visitors to New Orleans. There is now a fixed program. Rex, the King of the Carnival, who is some wealthy citizen, comes up the river on Monday, and is royally welcomed. Early Tuesday morning the merry children, noisy with tinkling bells and dressed in masks and gay dominoes, come out of their houses and visit from door to door in their neighborhood. Later in the day there is a street parade, and another one at night. The night parade is so beautiful as to make one think only of fairyland. The Mardi Gras gayeties end with the most brilliant ball of the season.

The day before Easter hints are dropped that the rabbits will be about that night. The sleepy children stay awake as long as possible watching for them. The rabbits are never seen; but, after long searching, their nests are found hidden snugly under hedges, in the grass, behind curtains, and under beds. There are red, black, purple, blue, green, and yellow eggs; eggs striped and dotted, and of every hue.

When the nests are found, the children living near together begin the contest of egg fighting. All seem to be screaming two magic words, " points or butts," and an outsider would see nothing but confusion. But this small board of trade knows exactly what it is doing. There are rules regulating how the egg shall be held, which end shall be used, who shall give the first stroke, how it shall be struck, and the kind of egg to be used. Any one so unfair as to fight with a guinea's egg against a hen's egg would be looked upon as a cheater. According to the code of honor among the children, no one would again fight with such an unfair player. The one breaking an egg takes it, and a boy or girl sometimes wins several dozen eggs.

At one time there was a horrible superstition among the negroes which was called the religion of the Voudous. The Voudous always met secretly at night in some desolate place. The leading actors in their meetings were a king, a queen, and a serpent. The prayers sent up from the Voudous' altar were always for love or for revenge. At the opening of the meeting the king passed his hands over the quivering body of the serpent; then passed the movement on to the queen, and she in turn gave it to the followers of the Voudou. All then began swaying their bodies in time with the low chanting: of a song:. The queen always led the singing, which became shriller and louder, the movements became ever swifter and swifter, until at last the Voudous were screaming, jumping up and down, tearing their clothing, and even biting their own flesh in their frenzy. At last they would fall to the ground and lie exhausted in the dim light of the dawning day.

Mardi Gras on Canal Street, New Orleans

When the Voudous wished to conjure any one, it was the queen who gave the charm. Sometimes it was a little cotton bag containing the hair of a dog or cat, cut into fine pieces and mixed with salt and pepper; sometimes it was an acorn with two holes cut in it and a feather run through the holes; or again it might be feathers glued together to form queer shapes. These charms were placed at the door or in the pillows of those whom they wished to conjure. There are no more Voudou queens, but some negroes and ignorant white people still believe in Voudouism.

The most beautiful of Louisiana's customs is the carrying of flowers to the cemeteries on All Saints' Day. For a week before, the shop windows display crowns and crosses made of white, black, and purple tissue paper, of white and black beads, and of immortelles. Most people, however, prefer fresh flowers. All Saints' Day used to be called le jour des morts, — the day of the dead, — and the living in Louisiana truly make it so.

Questions. — i. Why is our present attitude toward dueling much better than the old way?

2. Give an account of how you celebrate Mardi Gras. Imagine that you are describing it to a friend in the North or the West.

3. • Tell about any other Easter customs of which you know.

CHAPTER LX

CONCLUSION

Let us look backward. You remember that in the years between 1699 — when the French came to the Mississippi — and 1803, the date of the purchase, three nations were playing battledore and shuttlecock with Louisiana; that France first threw her to Spain, Spain back to France, and France to the United States. What was the reason for this?

Why was it that the English colonies, beginning with a few wanderers from their native land, steadily grew in strength until they became a great people — so great a people that in 1763 they were able to aid their mother country in wresting from France most of the territory she had claimed ^ And later, as you have learned, this same great people declared themselves an independent nation, no longer English Americans, but Americans. Why, during their period of rapid growth, were the French-Americans restlessly passing from one power to another?

This question bears upon Louisiana history, for the Louisianians are no longer necessarily of French and Spanish blood. The people of the United States have mingled until, to a great extent, they are one. A large part of the population of the State is partly of English descent, and some entirely so. The most important teaching of Louisiana history has not been learned if you do not know that the difference in the progress of the two colonies was owing to their form of government.

When our English ancestors came to America, it was with the fixed determination that this country was to be their home — a New England. After building their homes, they put up a church, a schoolhouse, and a court-house. This meant that in their new home they still sought the God of their fathers; and that they had resolved to educate their children and to establish a government after their own hearts. As has been said, the government of the two groups of colonies fixed their destinies.

Do you not remember that the motive of the French in coming to America was to trade? The hope of many French emigrants was to make all the money possible in Louisiana, and then to return to France. Recall the plans of the great French explorer. La Salle, whose ambition was to establish trading posts around the Great Lakes and from the mouth of the Mississippi to Canada. When the French government took up the matter of settling Louisiana, the aim of Pontchartrain was to deal in furs, explore for mines, and dive into the waters of the gulf for pearls. In the grants of Crozat's charter, you cannot recall any plans for building homes for people and giving them a share in the government. His aim was only to work Louisiana like a farm — always to drain the farm, and never to enrich it so as to make it yield. You cannot have forgotten the scheme of the famous John Law to make millions out of Louisiana; nor that in claiming the Ohio Valley the desire of the French was to trade.

Who came next? Spain, with her ruinous trade laws, grasping all for herself, and leaving the colonists to get along as best they could.

The European kings who governed Louisiana set aside the rights of the people to satisfy their own greed. In glancing over the list of Louisiana's governors, you find many names with grand titles. But it was under the governorship of the simple men from the ranks of the people that the Louisianians enjoyed the liberty to worship God as they chose, and the right to govern themselves. You have noted the prosperity of your State from the time she entered the Union until the opening of the Civil War; and how, under the control of the carpet-baggers, she was brought to poverty and almost ruin.

You must have learned the important lesson that the welfare of a country does not depend upon rich soil, delightful climate, and good harbors, but upon good government. The people must be free to make their own laws, and must make good ones.

When a few more years have passed, the children now in the public schools will be the lawmakers of the State. The future of Louisiana is in your keeping. Love her for the trials she has undergone; love her for what she may yet become. When you cease to be children, when you have put aside childish things, as men and women, see to it that you enter your new duties with earnestness of purpose and with clean hands and pure hearts.

STOPPED HERE

.^ " '^

I-?'

Central High School, Shrevepokt, La

GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER FRENCH RULE

Pierre le Moyne, Marquis d'Iberville Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac De I'Epinay (Christian name unrecorded) Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville Pierre Dugue de Boisbriant (ad interim) Perier (Christian name unrecorded) Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville Pierre Francois, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal Louis Billouart, Baron de Kerlerec . D'Abadie (Christian name unrecorded) . Aubry ........

. 1699	1700
I70I	I7I3
• I7I3	I7I6
• I7I7	I7I8
. I7I8	1724
	1724
• 1725	1732
• 1733	1743
• 1743	1752
• 1753	1763
• 1763	1765
• 1765	1766

GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER SPANISH RULE

Antonio de Ulloa .....

Alexander, Count O'Reilly

Luis de Unzaga y Amerzaga .

Bernardo de Galvez y Gallardo

Estevan Rodriquez Miro

Francisco Luis Hortes, Baron de Carondelet

Gayosa de Lemos .....

P>ancisco de Bouligny . . ' .

Sebastian, Marquis de Casa Calvo y O'Farril

Juan Manuel de Salcedo

I 766 176817691777

178517921797

1799 1801

-1768 -1769 -1776

-1785 -1791 -1797 -1799 1799 -1801 -1803

GOVERNOR OF THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS

William Charles Cole Claiborne .... 1804-1812

.^,61

362

APPENDIX

GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF LOUISIANA

William Charles Cole Claiborne . . . .1812

Jacques P. Viller^ . . . . . . .1816

Thomas Boiling Robertson (resigned) . . . 1820H. S. Thibodeaux, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) .......

Henry Johnson ....... 1824

Pierre Derbigny (died in office) .... 1828

A. Beauvais, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1829

Jacques Dupr6 .......

Andr^ Bienvenu Roman . . . . . .1831

Edward Douglas White ...... 1835

Andr^ Bienvenu Roman ...... 1839

Alexander Mouton ....... 1843

Isaac Johnson ....... 1846

Joseph M. Walker 1850

Paul Octave Hebert 1853

Robert Charles Wickliffe . . . . .1856

Thomas Overton Moore ..... 1860

General George F. Shepley (Military Governor) . 1862Henry Watkins Allen (under Confederate govern- "i

ment) . . . . . . . . 1864

Michael Hahn (under Federal government) . . J James Madison Wells, President of the Senate (Acting

Governor) ....... 1864

James Madison Wells ...... 1866

Benjamin F. Flanders (under military authority) . 1867

Joshua Baker (under military authority) .

Henry Clay Warmoth ...... 1868-1

John McEnery (counted out by the Returning Board) Peter B. S. Pinchback, Lieutenant Governor (Acting Governor) ........

William Pitt Kellogg, Governor de facto . . . 1873

APPENDIX

2>(>Z

Francis T. Nicholls

Louis Alfred VViltz (died in office)

S. Douglas McEnery, Lieutenant

ceeded Wiltz as Governor) S. Douglas McEnery Francis T. Nicholls Murphy J. Foster . William Wright Heard . Newton Grain Blanchard Jared Y. Sanders

Governor (sue

1877	t88o
1880	-1881
I88I	-1884
1884	-1888
1888	-1892
1892	-1900
1900	-1904
1904	-1908
1908	-/<^/y.

Abadie, Governor d', 123, 125, 133, 140.

Acadia, Exiles from, 126-132.

Adams, John, ig6.

Alabama, 7, 103, 297. See Mobile.

All Saints' Day, 356.

Allen, Henry W., 311-314.

Amendments, Thirteenth and Fourteenth, 324.

Americans in Louisiana, 123-125, 158, 163, 168, 172-177, 181, 195, 271,

353Arkansas,

River, 14, 75.

State of, 7, 299. Arkansas (gunboat), 305, 306. Artaguette, Chevalier d', 103-105.

Diron d', 55, 56, 103, 105. Aubry, 133, 135, 136, 138, 141-153Audubon, J. J., 285-290. Audubon Society, 290. Avery, Judge, 306, 307.

Balize, The, 138, 145, 169, 194. Banks, General N. P., 303, 306-308,

310. Baratarians, 250-255, 257, 266. Baton Rouge, viii, 279, 312.

Americans at, 239, 242, 243.

English at, 123, 158, 164, 167-169.

in Civil War, 296, 304-306.

Naming of, 36.

Spaniards at, 169, 231, 232, 239. Battle of the twenty-third, 264. Bay St. Louis, 62, 79. Bayou Sara, 239, 240, 242, 288, 305. Bayougoula Indians, 35, 39, 40. Beaujeau, 22-25. Beauregard, General, 298, 299. Berwick Bay, 307. Bienvenu, Bayou, 258, 260. Bienville, 115, 121, 124, 134, 151, 274, 337

Bienville (Continued)

E.xplorations, 31, 32, 37, 39, 41, 42,

44-51

First period as governor, 51-57, 6r, 62.

Second period as governor, 76-81, 84-91

Third period as governor, 102-109.

In Natchez wars, 68-70, 103-107. Bilo.xi, 38, 39, 46, 49, 79, 8r. Black Code, 86. Boll weevil, 185, 341. Bore, Etienne de, 185, 186, 194, 208,

209, 221, 222. Borgne, Lake, 258-261. Bras Pique, 95, 96. Breckenridge, Senator, 213. Breckinridge, General J. C, 304, 305. Buena Vista, Battle of, 282, 283. Burr, Aaron, 233-238. Bute, Fort, 124. Butler, General, 300, 302, 303, 310, 311.

Cabildo, 155-157, 209, 210. Cadillac, Governor, 61, 62, 68, 70. Calumet, 13, 68, 69. Canada,

Canadians in Louisiana, 30, 38, 47, 48, 89, 106, 124.

England's ownership of, 118, 122.

Exiles from, 126-132.

French in, 10, ri, 14-18, 60.

War in, 114-119. Caresse, Pierre, 151. Carolina (gunboat), 263, 265. Carondelet, Baron de, 179-184, 188

194, 231. Carpet-baggers, 326, 327, 329-331, 333,

336, 337, 359Carroll, Major General, 257. Carter, G. W., 334. Casa Calvo, 196, 208, 230, 231. Casket girls, 92.

365

366

INDEX

Cat Island, 31.

Catahoula Parish, loi.

Cecil, Father, 274.

Census of New Orleans, 136, 154, 219.

Cession of Louisiana Province,

To Spain, 123, 125, 133-141, 146.

To France, 198, 208.

To the United States, 204, 209-213. Chaise, M. de la, 88. Charlotte, Fort, 124. Chateauguay, Lemoyne de, 86. Chepart, 93-97, 103. Chiavari, 345.

Chickasaw Indians, 44, 50, 94, 101-107. Choctaw Indians, 50, 98-100. Choiseul, Due de, 134. Civil War, 291-309.

Claiborne, W. C. C, 209-211, 214-217, 224-228, 231, 236, 237, 242, 246248, 252-254, 257, 260, 269, 271. Clark, Daniel, 209.

Clothing, in Civil War, 313, 317, 319. Cochrane, Admiral, 259. Coffee, General, 257. Collot, General, 194. Committee of Public Safety, 191-194. Company of the West. See Mississippi

Company. Conde, Fort, 124. Confederate States, 297-309. Congress of the United States, 195, 269.

admits State of Louisiana, 224, 244246.

In Civil War and Reconstruction, 292,

295. 3". 323. 325. 336Navigation of the Mississippi, 175,

200. Organization of Louisiana, 213, 214,

225, 226, 228. Purchase of Louisiana, 212, 213, 218. Connor, Commodore, 283, 284. Constitution of the United States, 176,

213, 292, 294, 296, 324. Corn husking, 345. Cornwallis, General, 170, 171. " Cotton,

Cotton gin, 293, 294. Exporting, in, 219, 313, 349. Manufacturing, 313, 343. Raising, 17, 44, 185, 272, 293, 313, 315. 318. 319

Council,

Inferior, 78, 79. Legislative, 214, 225, 227, 237. Superior, 78, 113, 135, 137, 140-142, 155Courts in Louisiana, 150, 155, 156, 214,

216, 217, 242, 311, 323, 325. Creoles, 139, 146, 149, 156, 159, 168, 181, 206, 209, 215, 218, 220, 228, 236, 245, 247, 261, 265, 269, 271, 306, 346, 351, 352. Creve Coeur, Fort, 20. Crozat, 58-65, 67, 70, 73, 78, 122,

358-. Customs in Louisiana, 344-356.

Dauphin Island, 49, 6r, 76, 84. Davis, Jefferson, 296, 297. Defiance (war vessel), 299. Destrehan, Joel, 246. Dimitry, Alexander, 275. Donaldsonville, 308. Doucet, 139. Dueling, 351-353. Dunn, Oscar J., 326.

Eads, James B., 338. Easter customs, 354. Education in Louisiana, 84, 90, 107, 219, 220, 244, 274-276, 322, 22,3, 342, 360. Elections, in 1812, 246; in 1864, 311,

323; in 1873,334; in 1876, 336. Ellicott, Andrew, 190-192. England, and the United States, 166, 171, 246

248, 253-269. Colonies in America, i,\, x, 115-117,

160-164, 171. 357. 358in Canada, 118, 122. in Mississippi Valley, 17, 29, 41, 42,

44, 118, 123, 124, 198, 246, 269. Relations with Indians, 41, 44, 50, 52,

105, 106, 120. Trade with, 63, 124, 157, 158. War with France, x, 29, 51, 52, 114119, 163, 166,171, 198,199, 201, 203. War with Spain, 166-171, 187, 188. English Turn, The, 42, 261. Epinay, Governor de 1', 70. Evangeline, 131, 132.

367

Exports,

from Kentucky, 172, 173, 176. from Louisiana, in, 156-158, 219.

Farming in Louisiana, 48, 84, 85, 92,

III, 112, 222, 341-343. Farragut, Commodore, 300-302.' Flatboats, 173-175. 181, 193, 195. Florida,

Cession of, to the United States, 199,

201. Discovery of, 2, 3, 4. East and West, 189, 229-233, 239-243. England's ownership of, 119, 122,

124, 164, 165. Indians in, 278. Spaniards in, ix, 30, 31, 48, 63, 166,

169-171. State of, 229. Florida Parishes, 189, 239-243. Food supplies, in Civil War, 313, 315,

316. France,

in Canada, x, 10, 11, 14-18, 60, 115

118, 122, 199.

in Louisiana, 20-125, 163, 182, 183,

193. 197-211. 358in Mississippi Valley, 13, 16, 17, 20,

21. War with England, x, 29, 51, 52, 114

119, 163, 166, 171, 198, 199, 201, 203.

War with Spain, 187, 188. Freedman's Bureau, 324. French and Indian War, 115-119, 160,

161, 199. Frontenac, Count, 10, 11, 16,

Gallatin, Albert, 289.

Galvez, Governor, 159, 162-171.

Gander pulling, 351.

Gayarre, Charles, 220.

Gayoso de Lemos, 190-196, 205.

Georgia, 7, 272, 293, 344.

Germans in Louisiana, 75, 84, 85.

Gibbs, General, 266.

Grande Isle, 250.

Grande Terre, 250, 252.

Grandpre, Colonel, 294.

Grant, U. S., 334, 33(>

Great Britain. See England.

Great Lakes, The, 10, 16, 18, 25, 60,

IIS. 116, 358Guion, Captain, 194, 195.

Hachard, Madeleine, 90. Hahn, Michael, 311. Havana, 54, 119, 142. Hinds, Major, 257. Houmas Indians, 35, 36. House of Representatives of Louisiana, 225, 226. See Legislature.

Iberville, 30-51, 54, 55. 87, 115. i24Illinois country, 89, 103, 123. India, Trade with, 10, 16. Indians,

Customs of, I, 13, 36, 37, 45, 46, 94.

in battle of New Orleans, 266.

Marriage with, 89.

Relations with Europeans, 2, 4-7, 1014, 18, 20, 26, 27, 31-33, 35-47. 50. 52.53. 56,57.77

Trade with, 11, 15, 16, 18, 52, 63.

Tribes of, 11, 20, 35, 44, 45, 50, 94.

War with, 53, 68-70, 93-107, 120, 248, 256, 277. Indigo, 84, 92, 156, 157, 185, 317.

Jackson, Andrew, 248, 255-270, 292.

Jackson, Fort, 299-301.

Jackson Square, New Orleans, 146,

347. See Place d'Armes. Jefferson, Thomas, 209, 212, 214, 218,

225, 230, 236. Jesuits, 15, 91, III. Jetties of the Mississippi, 338, 339. Johnson, Andrew, 323. Governor Isaac, 280. Joliet, Louis, x, 10-15. Jones, Lieutenant T. A. C, 258, 259. Joutel, 26-28.

Kellogg, W. P., 334-336

Kemper brothers, 232.

Kentucky, 172-177, 183, 189, 197, 213,

< 233, 257, 265, 266, 272, 277.

Kerlerec, Governor, 114, 120, 121, 123.

Ku KIux Klan, 327-333.

Lafitte, Jean and Pierre, 249-255, 257. Lafourche Parish, 306.

368

INDEX

Lafreniere, 133, 139, 140, 144, 145,

148-152, 156. Lagniappe, 346, 348. La Harpe, 85, 87.

La Salle, 14-28, 34, 37, 38, 50, 115, 358. Laussat, 205-210. Law, John, 71-75, 82-84, 359Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 289. League of the White Camellia, 329. Lee, General R. E., 309. Legislature of Louisiana, 214, 225, 252,

260, 269. 274, 281, 314, S33Leprosy in Louisiana, 177. Lesassier, 142. Le Sueur, 98, 99. Levees, 92, iii, 112, 155, 272, 273, 337

340. Lincoln, Abraham, 310, 323. Livingston, Robert R., 199-204, 212. Log-rolling, 344. Louis XIV, 16, 17, 21, 29, 58, 59, 71,

72. Louis XV, 71, 102, 109, 134, 140-142,

274. Louisiana (gunboat), 265. Louisiana, District of, 213. Louisiana, Province of.

Boundaries of, 59, 115, 202, 218. Capital of, 80, 81, 85. Cession to France, 198, 208. Cession to Spain, 123, 125, 133-141,

146. Cession to the United States, 204,

209-213. Discovery of, 2, 7, 20. Early settlements in, 22-28, 30-32,

38, 42, 44, 48, 49Government of, 78, 79, 85, 88, 112,

155. 174. Life in, 26, 48, 54, 84, 89-92, 109,

139, 216, 218-223, 344, 345Naming of, 21.

Population of, 114, 154, 162, 219. Louisiana, State of, 213, 243, 245-343. Admission to Union, 224-226, 245,

246. w

Growth of, 271, 272. in Civil War, 298-309. in Mexican War, 280, 281. Life in, during Civil War, 311, 313,

315-322

Louisiana, State of (Continued)

Reconstruction period, 310-314, 321

33(>Secession of, 295-297. Lovell, General, 299, 300.

Madison, James, 241.

Magruder, Allen B., 246.

Manchac, 119, 124, 125, 158, 164, 167

169. Manitou, Indian, 13. Mansfield, Battle at, 308. Marbois, 203. Mardi Gras, 353, 355. Marquette, Father, x, 10-14. Marquis, Pierre, 151. Matagorda Bay, 50, 85. Maurepas, Count de, 29, 30. Maurepas, Lake, 37. McEnery, John, 334. Medicine, in Civil War, 307, 313, 319. Metropolitans, The, 335. Mexico, City of, 281, 314.

Gulf of, 14, 24, 33, 34, 43, 48, 52, 116, 122, 169, 196.

Spaniards in, 8, 63, 65-67, 143, 167, 169, 198, 235-238.

Trade with, 63, 65, 137.

War with, 279-282. Milhet, Jean, 133-135, 139, 142, 146,

149-152. Military government, 260, 269, 310,

325Milneburg, 272. Miro, Governor, 174-178, 194. Mississippi Bubble, The, 82. Mississippi Company, 73-82, 88-92,

102, 114, 122. Mississippi River, x.

Boundary of the United States, 171,

269. Discovery and exploration of, 2, 7,

9-17, 20, 21, 25, 28, 32-37. in Civil War, 298, 301, 304, 308. Jetties, 337-339Overflow of, 112, 195, 272, 337

340. Right of navigation on, 119, 166, 171-178, 1S7-189, 200. Mississippi, State of, 7, 31, 103, 272, 312.

369

Mississippi Territory, 195, 209, 225,

232, 239, 257, 266. Mobile, 13, 49, 56, 79, 80, 116, 164,

169, 229, 231. Money, Confederate, 319.

in Louisiana, 113. Mongouiacha Indians, 35, 37. Monroe, James, 203, 204, 212, 229, 230.

Mayor, 302. Montcalm, General, 117. Monterey, Battle of, 281. Montgomery, Alabama, 297. Moore, Governor T. O., 297, 306. Morgan, Colonel, 164, 165. Mouton, Governor Alexander, 306. Mumford, W. B., 302.

Napoleon, 197-208.

Natchez, 123, 158, 164, 167, 169, 187

195. 238. 304Natchez Indians, 44, 45, 67-70, 86, 93

106. Natchitoches, 47, 85, 220, 229, 306, 307. Negroes,

after Civil War, 311, 315, 322, 324,

326-330. as soldiers, 168, 257, 266, 302. Freedom of, 208, 311, 324. Importation of, 63, 73, 215, 222, 292,

294. in the government, 326,;^;^^, 334. on plantations, 84, 92, 208, 311, 315,

324Regulations for, 86, 312. Right to vote, 324, 325. Slavery of, 222, 223, 292-295. Uprisings of, 98, 184. New Orleans, 108, 116, 194.

Battle of September 14, 1874, 335. Commerce of, in, 137, 156-158, 173,

176,202,219,337,338. 5ce Trade. Founding of, 77, 78. Growth of, 84, 90-92, III, 124, 158. History of, 133, 136; 139, 145-158,

163-164, 166-169, i7S> 177. 179

183, 188-190, 195, 196, 228, 230,

234-238, 273, 274. in Civil War, 299-304, 307, 308. in War of 1812, 246-248, 254-269. Lifein, 85, 91, 109, 139, 216, 219, 220,

222, 249, 252, 352, 353.

New Orleans (Continued)

made capital, 80, 81, 85.

Population of, 154, 219.

Transfer to United States, 199-211.

Views of, 80, 90, 136, 157, 180, 210, 223, 273, 275, 342, 347, 349. Newspaper, First, 180. Nicholls, General, 248, 253.

Governor F. T., 336. Noailles, Sieur de, 106, 107. Nova Scotia, 126, 127. Noyan, 87, 104, 151.

Oaks, The, 352, 353.

Ohio Valley, Claims to the, 116, 359.

Opelousas, 306.

O'Reilly, General, 143-156, 207.

Orleans, Duke of, 71-73, 78.

Orleans, Island of, 119, 158, 199.

Orleans, Territory of, 213-217, 224-226,

244-246, 274. Ouachita River, 238.

Packard, S. B., 334, 336.

Pakenham, General, 265, 268.

Panama Canal, 202.

Pauger, 81, 85.

Pensacola, 48, 164, 165, 169-171, 231,

248. Perdido River, 189, 229. Perier, Governor, 88-92, 97, 100-102,

121. Petit Anse, 306, 307. Pinckney, Thomas, 229. Pioneer life, ^

in Kentucky, 172, 176, 277.

in Louisiana, 26, 48, 54, 84, 89-92,

344, 345Pirates on Gulf coast, 247, 250-255. Pitt, Fort, 163, 164. Pitt, William, 117. Place d'Armes, New Orleans, 146, 168,

209, 210. Pleasant Hill, Battle at, 308. Pointe Coupee, 84, 184, 232, 244. Pollock, Oliver, 163. Pontalba, 197. Pontchartrain, Count, 29, 30, 42, 43,

55, 57. 59, 62, 358. Countess, 70. Pontchartrain, Lake, 37, 41.

370

INDEX

Port Hudson, 304, 307, 308. Porter, Commodore, 300. Powers, Thomas, 183, 189. Poydras, Julian, 244, 245.

Quarantine, 340. Quebec, x, 14, 117. Quilting bees, 344, 345. Quincy, Josiah, 245, 291.

Railroads, 173, 272. Reconstruction Act, 326. Reconstruction period, 310-314,321-336. Red River, Exploration of, 46, 47. Resolute (war vessel), 299. Revolution,

American, 160-166, 171, 187.

French, 178, 181.

of 1768, 139-153.

of 1874, 333-336Rio Grande River, 280, 313. Robertson, T. B., 246. Roman, Governor A. B., 275. Ro>alie, Fort, 70, 93-99.

St. Charles, Fort, 263. St. Denis, 65-67, 220. St. Francisville, 240. St. Gabriel, Acadia, 127-129. St. Philip, Fort, 299-301. Salcedo, Governor, 205, 208. Salt mines, 306, 307, 343. San Domingo, 103, iii, 208. Santa Anna, 282. Sauvole, 39, 40, 48. Schools. .See Education. Scott, General, 281. Seal of Louisiana, 247. Secession,

in Kentucky, 175-177, 183, 189.

of Southern States, 295-297.

Rights of, 246, 291, 292, 295, 310, 321,

323

Senate of Louisiana, 225, 226. ^ee Legislature.

Sheridan, General, 325, 326.

Ship Island, 31, 37, 302.

Shreveport, 311, 313, 360.

Skip, Fulwar, 240.

Slave and free States, 294.

Slaves. See Negroes.

Smith, General Kirby, 307, 308. Smuggling, 163, 250. Soto, Hernando de, 2-9,. 28, 44. South Carolina, 292, 295, 298. Spain, E.xplorers from, ix, 1-8.

in Florida, 2, 31, 48, 63, 119, 122, 166, 169-171, 229-232, 239. ¦ in French and Indian War, 117-119.

in Louisiana, 29, 123-125, 133-208, 228, 247, 359.

in Mexico, 8, 63, 65-67, 143.

Treaties vi'ith, 119, 123, 163, 171-173, 187, 188, 190, 193.

War with England, 166-171, 187, 188.

War with France, 187, 188. Starvation parties, 322. Stevens, Thaddeus, 323, 325. Sugar,

E.xporting, iii, 219, 313.

Manufacturing, 184-186, 222, 316,

343Raising, 44, 185, 208, 221, 272, 293. Sumner, Charles, 323, 325. Sumter, Fort, 298.

Sun, The Great, 45, 69, 93-97, 101, 103. Sunday, Observance of, 348, 349. Swiss in Louisiana, 75, 120.

Talleyrand, 199-202, 230.

Tampa Bay, 4.

Taxes, 92, 155, 173, 180, 250, 292, 295,

324Taylor, General Richard, 306-308. Hancock, 277, 278. Zachary, 277-284, 306. Teche, Bayou, 131, 132, 308. Tennessee, 172, 257, 266, 327, 344. Tensa Indians, 45. Test Oath, 326. Texas, 24-28, 50, 85, 143, 235-238, 279,

280, 299, 325. Thomas, Philemon, 239. Tobacco, 84, 92, 111, 156, 157, 219, 272,

293. Tonti, Chevalier de, 20, 37, 38, 44, 50,

54Tournaments, 350. Trade,

Regulation of, 59, 60, 63, 88, 113, 125,

136, 156, 162, 174, i8o, 188, 195,

196.

INDEX

371

Trade {Continued)

Smuggling, 163, 250-252.

with Indians, 11, 15, 16, 18, 52, 63.

with Mexico, 63, 65, 85, 137.

with the Americans, 63, 124, 157, 173-176, 178, 180, 181, 195, iq6.

with the West Indies, 52, 137, 163.

See New Orleans, Commerce. Treaty,

of cession to Spain, 123.

of 1763, 118, 123, 125.

of 1783, 171-173, 187, 193.

of 1795, 188, 190, 193.

of 1800, igS, 199.

of 1803, 204, 212, 213.

with Indians, 69, 70, 93, 120. Truck farming, 341.

UUoa, Antonio de, 135-143, 146, i-ig,

ISOUnited States, History of the, 115, 144,

278, 281. Revolutionary War, 161-166, 171, 291. National government, 175-177, 233,

291, 292. Relations with Louisiana Province,

173-178, 187-192, 195, 196. Purchase of Louisiana, 199-205, 208

213. Territory of Orleans, 213-217, 224

226, 234-238, 246. West Florida, 229-233. War of 1812, 246-248, 253-269. Mexican War, 279-282. Civil War, 291-309. Reconstruction of South, 310-314,

323-326, 32,3-3,36. Unzaga, Governor, 156-159, 162, 163. Ursuline nuns, 90-92, 274.

Vaudreuil, Marquis de, 109-115, 117,

148. Vermilionville, 306. Vicksburg, 304, 305, 308. Villere, Joseph, 149, 150, 152.

Major, 262, 263.

Major General, 260, 262. Voudouism, 355, 356.

Waller, Sir Walter, 289.

War of 1812, 246-248, 253-269.

Warmoth, Governor H. C, 326, 333,

334Warrior (war vessel), 299. Washington, George, 171, 177. West Baton Rouge Parish, 244, 312. West Indies,

Indian slaves in, loi, 103.

Settlement of, ix, i, 2.

Settlers from, in, 224.

Trade with, 52, 137, 163. Westerners of the United States, 172176, 179, iSr, 196, 200, 212, 215, 216, 233, 237. White Apple Village, 93-96, 99. White League, The, 334. Whitney, Eli, 293, 294. Wilkinson, General, 176, 209, 210, 216,

236, 237. Williams, General Thomas, 304. Willing, Captain, 164, 165. Wolfe, General, 117. Women,

in Civil War, 315-321.

in the colonies, 26, 27, 54, 89-92, 112.

Yazoo Indians, 94.

Yellow fever, 54, 195, 272-274, 337, 340.

Yorktown, Surrender at, 170, 171.

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Notes

1. Capuchin A Catholic friar.

Text prepared by:

• Bryan Crossland
• Erika Dortch
• Noah Dryden

Source

Cable, George Washington. "Posson Jone'" and Père Raphaël: With a New Word Setting Forth How and Why the Two Tales Are One. Illus. Stanley M. Arthurs. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. Google Books. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://books. google.com/books?id=bzhLAAAAIAAJ>.

L’Anthologie  Louisianaise